BIOL 202 - Microbiology

The Paranoia of North America

2007-12-15T23:38:00.000-08:00

I work in a Seafood Department for Thrifty Foods; while I've been there I've been able to first hand experience the combined paranoia of companies, employees and the general populace. The company I currently work for has always been proud of being very strict with sanitation, amongst other things.
As most people know, Thrifty's was recently sold to a larger company named Sobe's. About a year ago, in preparation for the sale, they brought in a policy called "Standard Operations and Procedures" (or SOPs for short). SOPs are guidelines on how to clean and sanitize everything, keep food in optimal conditions and what Johnson Diversey chemicals are needed for different situations. While I am all for improvements but it seems to me that, for the most part, when most companies bring in sanitation procedures their main goal is to achieve protection from lawsuit and a feeling of safety for customers. Examples of this can be seen with Thrifty Foods SOPs.
Bacteria is a vital part of life and species of bacteria exist almost everywhere, including in and on larger organisms such as pigs, cows, fish and humans. Bacteria also can exist in the food we eat and the liquids we drink. Digestion of certain types of bacteria can be beneficial or benign, even with small doses of pathogenic bacteria. Food sickness can occur if pathogenic bacteria align against the walls of the intestines and excrete harmful toxins. Most pathogenic bacteria optimal growth temperature is around room temperature, so by decreasing the foods temperature you decrease the growth rate of possible bacteria, which in turn lessens the risk of foodbourne illness.
There are positives to SOPs when it comes to reducing the risks of foodbourne illnesses, for example: regulation in how often temperature of cooling devices are checked and surfaces of tables, counters and tools are cleaned. Sometimes the paranoia of lawsuits can hinder the ability to protect people from pathogens. One example with Thrifty's is if someone asked for their meat to be wrapped with a bag of ice to keep it cold and away from optimal growth temperature, we can not do that for them, in fear of the customer using the ice in something causing cross contamination.
Another example paranoia in the world of food poisoning is the theory that we, first world citizens, are weakening our immune system by cutting off the everyday pathogens our bodies evolved with. The sanitation process may be great for cutting off severe cases but weak cases can make one stronger in defending against future attack. This is noticeable when people on vacation visit poorer countries that do not have the same sanitation systems put in place
and the vacationers get sick off of food that would not harm a local.
For the most part I believe that the regulations we put in place helps us but our standards can be hurt by the bureaucracy of our society. It's also pleasant to believe that these sanitation processes protect us from cases of upset stomachs to rarer and more extreme cases of fatality, but in the end there's always the possibility that we are weakening our defenses in the fight for the survival of the fittest.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodborne_illness
http://www.thriftyfoods.com/common/index.html
http://www.johnsondiversey.com/Cultures/en/Content/Our+Expertise/Food+Safety.htm

AIDS: A Man Made Drug?

2007-12-15T21:46:00.000-08:00

As far back as my knowledge of AIDS can take me, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by an infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is an RNA retrovirus that infects the CD4 T lymphocyte, a cell type essential for adaptive immunity. This infection can usually last for up to twenty years before the population of CD4 T cells diminish completely leading to a collapse in the immune system. HIV has a nucleoprotien core surrounded by a lipid envelope derived from the host cell. When HIV infects a cell, the RNA genome is first copied into a complementary DNA by reverse transcriptase, then integrated into the genome of the host cell to form a provirus. The provirus uses the transcriptional and translational machinery of the host cell to make viral proteins and RNA genomes, which are assembeled into new infection virions.

Now...this is what we are taught but I cant help but think how did this begin? It was not until I had a long interesting conversation with a guy I met in Thailand that I was told of the major conspiracy theories on how HIV came to be...so I started surfing the net to see what i could find. A rather shocking quote I found was spoken by Pentagon Spokesperson Dr. Donald MacArthur on June, 6 1969, he said "Within the next five to ten years, it would probably be possible to make a new infective microorganism which could differ in certain important aspects from any known disease-causing organism. Most important of these is that it might be refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease. A research program to explore the feasibility of this could be completed in approximetly five years at a total cost of $10 million" (HB 15090 pg 129) Hmmm, HIV did appear approximetly 5 to 10 years later and is the first and only disease to fulfill such a definition. This epidemic, as most believe, did not start in Africa. Actually, the first AIDS cases were found in Manhattan in 1979. The epidemic in Africa did not begin until the fall of 1982. I ask myself how could a supposed black heterosexual African epidemic transform itself into an exclusively white young homosexual mens disease in Manhatten? As soon as the government sponsored gay hepatitis B experiment (1978-1981) ended in Manhatten in 1981 the epidemic became official. The first cases of AIDS in gay men appeared in Manhatten in 1979, soon after the gay experiment began in Manhatten NY. Dr. Theodore Strecker's research of the literature indicates that the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in collaboration with the WHO made the AIDS virus in their laboratories at Fort Detrick (now NCI). They combined the deadly retroviruses, bovine leukemia virus and sheep visna virus, and injected them into human tissues cultures. The result was the AIDS virus, the first human retrovirus known to man and now believed to be 100 percent fatal to those infected. All these different conspiracies make me believe that we need to research and investigate into possible man made diseases to expose the responsible and make sure this kind of thing (if it happened this way) will not be done again.

References:

http://www.shirleys-wellness-cafe.com/aids_origin.htm
http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/Article/The_Secret_Origins_of_AIDS.html
http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/Article/The_Secret_Origins_of_AIDS.html

Microbial War

2007-12-15T20:10:00.001-08:00

First it was hamburger, then municipal water, apple cider, swimmingin the lake, the day-care center, the petting zoo ......and now, spinach. Humans have been contracting foodborne infectious diseases in many environments and products. For example, last year the toxin, known as Shiga toxin- producing Escherichia coli was found in bagged spinach that implicated the illnesses of mild intestinal disease to severe kidney complications to over one hundred people, mostly affecting children under the age of eighteen.

“If you survived the Shiga toxin and the after-effects of food poisoning you may have been the innocent victim of a battle for survival between predator and prey.”

The bacterial ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena (shown left in picture) is fifty times the size of its bacteriophage (bacteria that carry a virus) competitor; however, it is vulnerable to the toxin-encoding virus-Shiga (Stx) the bacteria carry in their DNA (shown right in picture).

The bacteria may carry around these viral hitchhikers because the Shiga toxin (Stx) gene might give the bacterial host an equalizer against bacterial predators, like Tetrahymena. To test this idea, reasearchers exposed an E. coli stain that did not carry the Shiga toxin to the eukaryote, Tetrahymena and as predicted, the bacteria were eaten. Whereas, when the bacteria containing the toxin-encoding virus- Shiga, some produced the toxin and killed the Tetrahymena; therefore, allowing the remaining bacteria to spread because there were fewer Tetrahymena eating them.

The Shiga toxin kills by binding to a receptor on the surface of a Tetrahymena and performs endocytosis to release the toxins, which cause irreversible damage to ribosomes and thereby promoting cell death. The bacteriophage induces the toxin release due to the presence of Tetrahymena by activating an S.O.S response. Scientists are working on identifying the danger signals involved in triggering the response, which can have implications for treating patients.

"When you give antibiotics to patients infected with the Shiga-toxin-producing bacteria, it may make them even sicker" he said. "That's because in the process of killing off the bacteria, the SOS response causes even more toxin to be released to do even more damage."

In recent studies, the Shiga-toxin was not effective at killing some Tetrahymena's, due to the development of resistance of the toxin by the Tetrahymena; therefore, there may be a treatment method that would give human cells the ability to become resistant to the toxin, too.

Researchers believe that the microbial war between the bacteriophage and their predators may play a role in the treatment of patients with this toxin.

"We have a very mammalian way of thinking about this and it's wrong. We are a very small part of the entire ecology of the planet and just because something can hurt us doesn't mean that's why it's there."

Sources:

http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/dc/Epidemiology/stec_fs.html

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-12/asfc-hnt112807.php

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071203103405.htm

Image:

http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/07120316.htm

Excenel - not all its cracked up to be?

2007-12-15T18:37:00.001-08:00

This is Monique. She was born with some very serious conditions that forced her to spend her first couple months in a specialized horse clinic. Since, she has recovered to the point were she can now support herself and stabilize her metabolism without her mothers milk. The major problems leading up to this point in time have left her immune system suppressed and therefore susceptible to many common bacteria that can be found around a wet climate barn yard. It was no surprise that the "cold" that circulated briefly around the several other young horses, would reach Monique. But when the symptoms of her "cold" progressed far worse than those of the other horses, she was put on Excenel to help her get over the infection that was developing in her lungs.

Excenel is an antibiotic common among large animals that falls under Cephalosporins. Cephalosporins of this generation are classified as bactericidal, acting to inhibit the mucopeptide synthesis of the bacterial cell wall and creating an osmotically sensitive cell. They are different generations of chephalosporins, each with their own specificities and developed resistancies. For example, 1st generation Cephalosporins are more effective towards gram-positive bacteria such as S.intermedius and S.aureas (to name only two), and are consistently resisted by Streptococci, Enterococci, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococci, and Pseudomonas. 3rd generation cephalosporins are much broader spectrum with few recognized or tested resistant bacteria, while some antibiotics of the 3rd generation have proved particularly effective against Pseudomonas. Excenel is a new generation cephalosporin antibiotic used particularly in horses for its abilities against S.equi and Streptococcus zooepidemicus involved in common respiratory infections. Sounds promising right?

Wrong! Monique was given Excenel intramuscularly for a month straight, twice as long as Excenel advertises, but still, her symptoms persisted. A broad spectrum bactericidal drug that triggers common pathogens to horses should have worked well with Monique's suppressed immune system! What went wrong?

When a sterile swab was taken of Monique's mucus, Pseudomonas as well as S.aureus were isolated. Other forms of gram-positive mannitol fermenting Staphylococci were also present (could it have been possibly S.equi) as well as some very interesting other bacteria that could not be analyzed. The evidence of both S.aureus and Pseudomonas indicates the inevitable resistance factor. Has the bacteria causing the problem become resistant? It could be!

With the mucus sample we were able to take a look at the raw evidence through making a simple slide. The slide showed lots of puss, a very effective way to prevent antibiotics from reaching target areas of infection. Puss protects the bacteria causing the infection by acting as a barrier between antibiotics and the site of infection. Could this explain why such a highly regarded drug has failed in Monique's case? Possibly.

Monique was in a specialized hospital for months. Within the sterile walls of any medical institution, bacteria are discouraged in as many ways as possible creating a selective pressure. Many hospitals today are facing the man made circumstance of MRSA, Methicillin resistant Staphylococci. Recall that for first generation cephalosporins MRSA are resistant. Could it be that Monique actually suffers from something more than a common respiratory bacterial infection? Could she have contracted MRSA somewhere in the hospital? The other horses she has come in contact with have recovered meaning that she has most likely not contracted MRSA.

Monique's case is very complicated and no serious conclusions can be drawn without further extensive testing, however, some theories from micro biology 202 can be applied. The antibiotic was unable to penetrate the infection causing bacteria due to resistance factors or the antibiotic was unable to localize the infection site due to prevention variables. The possibility of MRSA exists but is unlikely. Excenel did not work and continues to not work. The veterinarians are now looking into some other options such as a tracheal flush. The bacteria that is causing the problem has evidently proved its virulence and therefore the next step is for the veterinarians to culture the bacteria from the lower respiratory track and examine the real "enemy". Email for updates!

http://www.excenel.com/product_overview.asp?country=GL&lang=EN&drug=EP&species=EQ
Dr.Margret Clarins (JDF vet)
Veterinarians hand book of drugs (trust me - this is not a hand book)
Linda Scotten (Instructor at Camosun College) (THANK YOU!!)

Hendra is such a pretty name.

2007-12-15T16:16:00.000-08:00

There has been an onslaught of (quasi)movies in the last few years which focus on the impending doom we may one day face from zombies/vampires/global warming. While these flicks often temp our tender imaginations, it would seem the most realistic threat we may one day face comes from bite sized flying rodents.

Back in 1994 a strange thing happened. A strange virus was discovered at a horse stable, where it had killed 13 horses, and one human. The source of the outbreak was hard to pinpoint because of the rapid emergence and retreat of the pathogen, but after some clever sleuthing the case unfolded. The virus was found to stem from contact with bats, and further testing found consistent ( albeit low) traces of the virus in local bats. The virus was named “Hendra”, for the small town in Australia it was first discovered in, and although it has never risen to the fame of ebola or the plague it shares many traits with these two known killers.

For one thing, it’s fast paced and lethal. There was nothing to be done for the infected horses, and of the two humans who showed symptoms, only one survived. Since this outbreak over a decade ago, Hendra, and its relative Nipah have repeatedly struck with deadly results, resulting in a swarm of research. Nipah has proved to be the more dangerous of the two, killing 105 humans, and resulting in the culling of over a million pigs in Malaysia in 1999.

The term “zoonosis” is another item connecting Hendra and Nipah, to the Plague, and Ebola. It refers to a pathogen which is harbored in animals, and then crosses over to affect humans. Approximately sixty percent of human infectious diseases start this way, ranging from common strains of influenza to West Nile Fever. Could zoonosis inspire our fear to the degree that zombies have? Maybe not, but it’s a more realistic enemy to be sure.

Sources:

National Geographic, Octover 2007, pg82-85.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendra_virus

http://www.who.int/csr/don/1999_04_07a/en/

The Forgotten Fungus

2007-12-15T11:54:00.000-08:00

When reports first came out about the “deadly fungus” the newspapers were flooded with articles pertaining to Cryptococcus gatti. Nowadays, the newspapers only occasionally report on the “forgotten fungus”.

On June 6, 2002 the B.C. Centre for Disease Control issued a health advisory, including possible symptoms of the disease, as to the emergence of Cryptococcus on Vancouver Island. Cryptococcus is a microscopic yeast that is found in the air, trees and soil of Vancouver Island and is responsible for disease in humans and animals in British Columbia since 1999. Cryptococcus is found throughout the world, in Southern California, Australia, Central and South America, Africa, India, South-east Asia and Spain, but is new to Canada. It is not known exactly how the Cryptococcus fungus came to be in British Columbia but it is suggested that imported tropical plants are to blame or that it may have always existed here and is now prevailing due to climate or environmental changes (ie increased air borne concentrations due to drier than normal summers). Either way, it has been considered the world’s largest outbreak of Cryptococcal disease ever identified.

Cryptococcal disease is caused by the inhalation of the air borne fungal spores that can be carried via wind many kilometers from the source. The disease cannot be transferred human to human or from animal to human and vice versa, it is not contagious. Once in the lungs, Cryptococcus gatti can cause pneumonia, meningitis, lung nodules, and can affect the central nervous system. The incubation period is anywhere from 2 to 9 months and initial symptoms can include headaches, night sweats, fever, prolonged cough, and weight loss in humans and runny noses, coughs, lumps under the skin, changes in personality, blindness, and seizures in animals. Cryptococcal disease can be diagnosed in humans and animals by using an antigen test and if detected early enough, can be treated with antifungal medication.

There is no vaccine for Cryptococcus and no recommended precautionary measures to avoid the disease. Nor are there any fungicides or chemicals to apply to the trees for protection. However, knowing the symptoms and alerting your doctor or veterinarian is helpful in early diagnosis and treatment. It is reported that even in central Vancouver Island areas, doctors and veterinarians are not very familiar with the disease and outside of B.C. most physicians are not aware that Cryptococcus gatti may be responsible for infection. On a more positive note, not everyone who breathes in the airborne spores becomes sick. Areas of Vancouver Island where the fungus was first located remain open to the public and none of the people who regularly work there have ever reported serious illness. The risk of contracting the disease is very low considering the amount of exposure and confirmed cases in the past. Thus, the benefits of getting outside and remaining active should strongly out way the risk of infection.

Although Cryptococcus gatti is responsible for what has been considered the world’s largest outbreak of Cryptococcal disease ever identified, it has failed to capture the attention of the media. Even in central Vancouver Island where the fungus is most prevalent, there is very low coverage. It is estimated that Cryptococcus gatti has had less than one fifth the coverage West Nile has received, and West Nile has yet to even spread into British Columbia. The majority of the 176 confirmed cases from 1999-2006 are linked to Vancouver Island, however, by the end of last year 6 cases where confirmed on the lower mainland with absolutely no link to the island. Though it has not had the media coverage it perhaps should have, the expansion of Cryptococcus gatti shows it is a fungus to be reckoned with.

REFERENCES:

http://www.shape.bc.ca/resources/pdf/cryptococcal.pdf

http://www.bccdc.org/print.php?page=topic.php&item=109

http://ams.confex.com/ams/AFAPURBBIO/techprogram/paper_80027.htm

Washing hands proven to be more effective than drug against pandemic

2007-12-15T04:15:00.000-08:00

We know that keeping oneself clean all the time always been a great way to prevent oneself from getting sick. Maybe, we didn't know back then when we were still young, spoiled kids who loved to go outside get dirty, but our mothers forced us to wash our hands before dinner. This simple process called, 'hand-washing' can provide protection against cold and flu. But would these protective measures such as hand-washing or wearing gloves good enough to stand against even SARS or influenza viruses?

Surprisingly, recent medical studies showed that just regular practice of physical barriers are more effective than drugs that can prevent SARS or influenza which are considered as potential pandemics at moment.

Developing new vaccines and drugs can take a lot of time and money. Even if these drugs became available, we have to consider the time that would take to mass produce them and delivery it to people in need. Also, the issue of money is another concern for us and government. If the drug was made little in quantity, or from expensive reagents, then of course the price of the drug would be huge. Then, poor people would be left with no option but wait for help of charity.

It's incredible to think that just simple hand-washing can be more effective in preventing from even pandemic diseases. If pandemic was to occur, then just educating people to wear safety masks, gloves and wash hands, can reduce number of sick people drastically. This means that less people getting sick, thus there are less need for drugs. Since we do not know how expensive and avaibilty of durgs are going to be, best thing to do is not get sick in a first place.

However, this does not mean we are compeletly safe from diseases. We still need drugs and vaccines to wipe out the diseases. Even these physical barriers have its limits. For example, it would be hard to educate all the people to remind the importance of hand-washing especially to those in third world countries. Also, in third world countires, I doubt that they have sufficient clean waters for their personal hygine.

References:

http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/sick/hand_washing.html

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071130162924.htm

Images:

www.health.gov.ab.ca

New Possible Vaccine Against Avian Flu?

2007-12-15T04:07:00.000-08:00

H5N1. The most feared type of influenza A virus has always been our concern. The statics show that for last 4 years, total 203 deaths were confirmed. Also, according to report from WHO, the both human cases and deaths of H5N1 is gaining its momentum, and steadily increasing. What does this mean? Does this mean that we are looking at possible cause of next inevitable chaos? If so, how are we going to prepare for it?

On a bright side, several researchers have managed to produce new vaccine against avian flu that is ready for human trial. This new vaccine is developed from NDV, new castle disease virus that has same common gene as H5N1. So far, the experiment was successful to monkeys. When monkeys were injected with this vaccine, it was observed that there was significant increase in the anti-bodies. Now, researchers firmly believe that this new vaccine is possible candidate vaccine against H5N1.

However, I can't help but bring up issue of safety of vaccine. The report says the monkeys were well-tolerated the vaccine, but clearly, humans and monkeys are different. The genetics might say otherwise but there are undoubtedly much difference us and monkeys. We need to make sure this vaccines don't become just another problem for us to deal with. Also, even if the vaccine was proven to be safe for human usage, do we have enough facilities to mass-produce this vaccine to vaccinate the whole population of the earth? H5N1 avian flu is becoming more threat to us as we speak. It's critical to think about how fast we can deliver this vaccine to those in need right now. And, for some people, this vaccine might not work, for all individuals are not same. So, we have to take that into consideration and think of way to modify the vaccine. This process can take extra time and money.

References:

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071108180449.htm
http://www.avianbiotech.com/Diseases/Newcastle.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N1

Image:

http://political-analysis.org

The New Influenza Vaccine

2007-12-14T23:43:00.000-08:00

A new vaccine that protects monkeys against the avian influenza virus strain has been developed by researchers at the National Institute of Health and the University of Maryland. It has worked on African monkeys and is now ready for clinical trial on humans. In the past decade or so, transmission rate of this highly pathogenic avian influenza virus from birds to humans has rapidly increased resulting in 278 human infections and 168 deaths. Fear of a possible pandemic outbreak emphasizes the need for an effective vaccine. Development of the vaccine has been hindered by factors like poor immunogenicity, biosafety concerns, and risk of genetic exchange with circulating influenza virus strains. The research involved the creation of a live vaccine which included the avian Newcastle Disease Virus which contains a common gene found in the avian influenza virus. Given both intranasally and through the respiratory tract in two doses with a 28-day interval, the vaccine response showed low amounts of virus shedding indicating protection. After the second dose, high levels of neutralizing antibodies were present in the immunized systems. A substantial response to either dosage was noted in the respiratory tract indicating a likely reduction in transmission in the event of an outbreak.

Influenza is a serious infection, sometimes deadly, where the enveloped Influenzavirus binds itself to the surface of the cell. Typically, influenza is transmitted from infected mammals through air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus, and from infected birds through their droppings. It can also be transmitted by saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Infections occur through contact with these bodily fluids or with contaminated surfaces. Flu viruses can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature, over 30 days at 0 °C (32 °F), and indefinitely at very low temperatures (such as lakes in northeast Siberia). They can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.

The flu vaccine external structure mutates all the time resulting in changes to the flu strain. Each year the influenza virus changes and different strains become dominant. Due to the high mutability of the virus a particular vaccine formulation usually works for only about a year. This requires the vaccine strain to be changed each year. One method of making flu vaccines involves the incubation of the three strains (A, B, & C) that are most expected to spread in a given year into millions of chicken eggs to multiply. This method is labor-intensive, time consuming and takes too long to produce vaccine in the case of another worldwide pandemic.

A new procedure involves the spraying of viral genes directly through the skin in a technique that turns infinitesimal amounts of DNA into an effective vaccine. The infectious disease specialist takes out a few genes from the DNA of the influenza virus and shoots it at a very fast speed into the person’s skin using ‘a new needle-free device (CDC)’. The DNA enters the cell and produces a very strong immune response. If approved for use in humans, the new procedure could save many lives in case of a flu pandemic, by skipping the current, time-consuming production of vaccines in chicken eggs.

Sources:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071108180449.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_vaccine

Want Milk?

2007-12-14T21:46:00.000-08:00

Ingredients:

59 hormones, scores of allergens, fat, cholesterol, herbicides, pesticides, dioxins, 52 antibiotics, blood, pus, viruses and bacteria

Lately, the American advertising campaign is encouraging the consumption of milk by endorsing the slogan of “Got Milk?” by many celebrities, movie stars, musicians and sport stars. They say milk is mother natures “perfect food” that can enhance performance by building muscles, strengthening bones, maintaining healthy hair, promoting healthy teeth, and improving sleep. However, they do not say that milk can cause diabetes, obesity, allergies, cancer, osteoporosis and diseases caused by pathogens.

Scientists have discovered a bacterium known to cause disease in dairy cattle that may also cause Crohn's disease in humans. The disease that primarily occurs in dairy cattle is called Johne's disease, which is a contagious, chronic and usually fatal infection by the bacterium known as Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (MAP), that affects the small intestine of ruminants (hooved animals with a four-chamber stomach). MAP penetrates the intestinal mucosa and are phagocytized by macrophages and they continue to multiple inside the macrophages. The symptoms of the bacterial disease include diarrhea, and rapid weight loss due to the poor absorption of nutrients from the ilium (part of small intestine). Animals with Johne's disease “waste away” despite their continuing to eat well. In the U.S, 22% of dairy herds are infected and are usually not seen until they are adults because of the slow progressive nature of the disease. Crohn's disease in humans show clinical and pathological resemblance to Johne's disease as a chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Crohn's disease affects at least 500,000 Americans and is usually termed “a disease of the young” because it targets young people between the age of 15 and 25. Biologists are trying to determine whether the pathogen, MAP belongs as a zoonotic agent. That is, can MAP found in dairy cattle transmit the pathogen to humans and have the ability to cause disease. A standard for scientific proof of disease by microorganisms is called Koch's postulates. However, more research is needed before conclusions can be made regarding if MAP is zoonotic. There is evidence though, showing that patients with Crohn's disease have MAP: “Recent reports in the medical literature indicate that 25-75% of patients with Crohn's disease test positive for M. paratuberculosis.”

If MAP is a human pathogen, then the issue is transmission to humans. MAP is found in the milk from an infected cow; however, the process of pasteurization is to destroy all harmful microorganisms. But, it is found that these organisms survived pasteurization and that certain times of the year (January-March and September-November) there is a higher likely hood that MAP will be present in retail milk. Under the two main types of pasteurization, neither the High Temperature/Short Time (HTST: 71.7^oC for 15-20 seconds) nor the Ultra-High Temperature (UHT: 138^oC for a fraction of a second) completely eliminated MAP. The bacterial strains appeared to be heat resistant and survival was greater when samples were cooled rapidly following pasteurization causing clumping of bacterial cells. However, none of the strains remained when exposed to 70^oC for 25 seconds, suggesting that increasing the holding time is more likely to inactivate MAP in milk.

More research is needed to build solid scientific conclusions on whether Mycobacterium paratuberculosis is a zoonotic agent and has the ability to cause Crohn's Disease in humans.

Humans are designed to drink our mother's milk for sustenance prior to our consumption of solid food. No other mammal continues to drink their mother's milk after this period, yet we do. Did you know that 75% of the population is lactose intolerant, meaning that they cannot metabolize the carbohydrate lactose found in milk. But this might be a “normal” condition, since are bodies are not designed to drink milk after childhood. To decrease your ability to get milk-borne diseases, like osteoporosis (the highest consumption of milk in the world, showed to have the highest rates of osteoporosis), or pathogens, then obtain your calcium from leafy greens, as cows do.

"It's not natural for humans to drink cow's milk. Humans milk is for humans. Cow's milk is for calves. You have no more need of cow's milk than you do rats milk, horses milk or elephant's milk. Cow's milk is a high fat fluid exquisitely designed to turn a 65 lb baby calf into a 400 lb cow. That's what cow's milk is for!" --Dr MichaelKlaper MD

Sources:

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071210104002.htm

http://www.rense.com/general26/milk.htm

http://www.gotmilk.com/news/health/index.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Got_Milk

http://www.johnes.org/general/faqs.html

http://www.crohns.org/

http://www.wisc.edu/fri/briefs/paratb.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scah/out38_en.pdf

Image:

http://www.NewsTarget.com

Energy Drinks

2007-12-14T17:25:00.000-08:00

Energy drinks are one of the most popular items on the market today. They supply mental and physical alertness for a short period of time. Most energy drinks contain common ingredients, such as sugar, caffeine, taurine, vitamins, riboflavin and many more. Two main ingredients come in all energy drinks, they are sugar and caffiene. One can of energy drink has approximately 80 milligrams of caffiene, which is equivalent to the amount of caffiene in a cup of coffee. Consumers of energy drinks are mostly athletes and students.

Energy drinks are still fairly new today, they were first created and introduced in Japan in 1962. Japan came out with an energy drink called Lipovitan D Drink. This energy drink was designed to help nightime employees stay mentally and physically alert, so that fatigue would not interfere with their quality and production levels. The first energy drink that was introduced to the United States of America was the "Jolt Cola" in the 1980s. Some businessmen from Asia picked up on the high potential of money making and started to introduce these energy drinks to different countries. These businessmen today are making billions of dollars due to the amount of energy drinks people buy and consume. There are more than hundreds of different brands of energy drinks on the market now. The most common energy drink on the market is Red Bull, which is considered a health product in Canada under the natural health product (NHP) regulations.

Sugar in energy drinks is broken down rapidly and is absorbed and digested by the body. Vitamins (group B) help release energy from food in the body. The addition of taurine in energy drinks is unclear but it is thought to have effect on muscle contractions of the heart. Caffeine works by blocking the effects of adenosine, adenosine is a chemical within the brain that is also involved in sleep. When caffeine blocks the effect of adenosine, the neurons in the brain start to react and the body starts to think that its in an emergency. This leads to the initiation of the bodys "fight or flight" response from the pituitary gland by releasing adrenaline. This hormone makes the heart beat faster and the eyes dilate. It also causes the liver to release more sugar into the bloodstream for energy. Caffeine also affects the levels of a chemical in the brain called dopamine. This whole physical response of the body due to the addition of caffeine and sugar makes you feel like you have more energy. The maximum consumption of Red Bull according to NHP is 500 mL per day, if there is improper use of energy drinks it leads to serious side effects.

The side effects of energy drinks are severe dehydration, heart problems, nausea, vomiting, diaherrea and some others. The high sugar content and caffeine can have a diuretic and laxative effect. Also your body has a sudden "crash" when the sugar leaves the bloodstream where your body feels exhausted. Also mixing alcohol and energy drinks together is very common. Energy drinks are a stimulant and alcohol is a depressant, the mixture can effect your heart and may lead to seizures.

Caffeine is an addictive substance, therefore energy drinks containing the substance makes the drink addictive. Some countries like France, Norway and Denmark have banned Redbull because of a few deaths that arised from the consumption of energy drinks. A basketball athelete by the name of Ross Cooney consumed four cans of Redbull before his basketball game and passed away at the age of eighteen from cardiac arrest. There have been a few worldwide cases where an individual has been harmed, due to the consumption of energy drinks. Health risks are higher for people who already have minor health problems and people who abuse the consumption of energy drinks. So be careful and consume energy drinks properly!

http://www.brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/atod/energydrinks.htm

http://www.bodyecology.com/07/05/17/energy_drink_nutrition.php

http://www.cbc.ca/consumers/market/files/health/redbull/index.html

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/iyh-vsv/alt_formats/cmcd-dcmc/pdf/energy-energie_e.pdf

They’ve Got It All Wrong. Life (though small) Imitates Art.

2007-12-14T12:36:00.000-08:00

Bacteria has long been the domain of scientists and science students. With most of the public only hearing about them in antibacterial nasal spray or mouth wash commercials. Though we are in contact with bacteria everyday it is usually only a select few out of the general population who have a chance to manipulate our microbial friends. That was true until recently; microbes have taken a greater portion of the spotlight and are invading the art world. They are no longer shown as deadly pathogens in every news clipping but are now physically shown in galleries. If you’d like to take a peek at some try http://star.tau.ac.il/~eshel/gallery.html there are three pages of art.

This picture, for example, is one of many found In the Eshel Ben-Jacob Galllery. These remarkable images are actually patterns. Not the kind we played with in lab, (the making of jackolanter faces with paper and UV radiation) but by manipulating the adaptive responses of colonies. “Laboratory-imposed stresses that mimic [natural] hostile environments” are used to shape the billions of microbes. While the patterns are all based on bacterial communication, the colour and shading are all artistic additions.

However, the laboratory tests aren’t all for the sake of art. They are actually used to test the coping capabilities of bacteria. The main result of which is a pattern of responses. The responses elicited by the bacteria show the cooperation and communication used by bacteria throughout a colony and between colonies. Responses which have in the past thwarted our best efforts and our best antibiotics. By watching these patterns carefully we are able to create great art and discover the mechanisms behind the intelligent design.

Yet, this is not the only method of creating art with our oldest and newest media on agar based medium. A Bulgarian artist, Houben Tcherkelov, is reaching out - away from the testing based art - and back into the more traditional forms of art such as classical etching. Tcherkelov explains that his goal is “ to create something which does not exist, a remarkable, manipulated bioproduct” and “I use bacteria to do the etching. I want to present a color image of our biologic coexistence.”

While Tcherkelov popularized the bacteria-art movement in 2001, Anna Dumitriu has continued it with her “The Normal Flora Project.” “The Normal Flora Project” is heavily inspired by medical science, cell biology, supplements (such as vitamin C) and their effects, as well as the concept of immortality; All of which, culminated into the culturing of bacteria and moulds in domestic environments. Dumitriu concentrates on the friendly and harmless bacteria for her exhibits. Some of her bacteria art is even available for phones. A series of cell-phone wallpapers are based on Dumitriu’s light micrographs of bacteria and mould spores at 1000x magnification (as seen below). Though she is best known for her phone wallpapers, her exhibits have also shown needle points and patterns carved into chairs based on the patterns taken from bacteria on the chair.

Much has happened in the scientific and art worlds in the last decade. But a word or warning to anyone looking to combine the two in the near future. You have to suffer for great art. Some of our scientific artists have gone through much in the last decade alone. Steven Kurtz can attest to that – and probably has testified it in court. Kurtz is one of the founding members of the Critical Art Ensemble which was supposed to demystify and “alleviate inappropriate fear[s] of transgenic science and redirect

concern toward the political implications of the research” by concentrating on benign bacteria. Though the artists followed all of the correct procedures and there were no health hazards, they were still subpoenaed for “possession of biological agents.” Escherichia coli can be hazardous to one’s health if handled improperly but all of the proper measures werein place. “The group's works… include websites and mock newspaper ads touting fictional biotech companies, and shows in which the audience has the chance to drink beer containing human DNA.” I can understand how this would put up some red flags, but this does not merit prosecution for the ''possession of biological agents.''

So just in case you too would like to begin a career in bacterial art, keep in mind the risks involved.

http://star.tau.ac.il/~eshel/gallery.html
http://new.heimat.de/home/ctrl-z/magazine/2001/projects/houben/index.html
http://mooonriver.blogspot.com/2006/11/bacteria-art.html
http://www.textually.org/textually/archives/2005/06/008588.htm
http://www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/brightonandhove/news/ART44416.html
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A05EEDF1E31F934A35755C0A9629C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=2

In the Fight Against Global Warming, Can We Get Microbes On Our Team?

2007-12-14T11:57:00.000-08:00

In recent years, carbon dioxide has become a favourite target when it comes to global warming. Focus on carbon emissions has become prevalent in the media. Factories are being criticized for the amount of carbon they release into the atmosphere through industrial processes, and there seems to be a general shift in the public consciousness about the amount of carbon we all produce on a daily basis. This type of thinking is a great move for dealing with the issue of climate change, but in my opinion, I feel there should be a bit more attention paid to another greenhouse gas that could potentially have a greater affect on global warming: Methane. While factories and cars get a bad reputation for CO2 emissions, processes like wastewater treatment, cattle farming and rice cultivation get much less recognition for the large amounts of methane they produce.

The US Environmental Protection Agency states that methane is “20 times more effective in trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide over a 100-year period.” The Earth has a huge number of natural sources of methane, and over time human activity has increased the amount of this gas present in the atmosphere. This is serious cause for concern over the future of our planet.

It’s not all doom and gloom though. Recent discoveries and research are giving new hope to a serious problem. In recent years scientists have discovered potentially useful strain of archaea called ANME-1. Colonies of these anaerobic methanotrophs were originally found at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean surrounding mud volcanoes. Their main source of energy is actually the methane released from the undersea volcanoes that they border. ANME-1 has since been found in water around the world and it is now understood that these helpful microbes aid in the regulation of methane in the atmosphere. This is thought to be done through a process called reverse methanogenesis. They seem to consume a great deal of methane in the ocean before it has the chance to reach our atmosphere. Since so much methane is found in the ocean, these bacteria are vital to keeping our atmosphere from being overwhelmed with the gas.

The potential for these bacteria to be harnessed for our own use is great, but the question is, can it actually be done? So far scientists have been unable to find an effective way of utilizing the microbes. They are slow growing and difficult to isolate in a lab setting. But I feel that this is something that should be delved into more. Of course our efforts to reduce climate change should be channeled into other ventures as well, but reducing the amount of methane in our environment could be a triumph against climate change. Perhaps in the future these helpful microbes will be better understood and may be a useful bioremediation tool.

Sources:
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/10/061018-volcano.html
http://www.mbari.org/news/homepage/2004/methane-bugs.html
http://www.biol.wwu.edu/young/revmet.ppt
http://www.epa.gov/methane/

Image:
http://earth.rice.edu/MTPE/hydro/hydrosphere/hydrosphere_who.html

HPV also Affect Males

2007-12-14T11:38:00.001-08:00

HPV ALSO AFFECT MEN
A couple months back in class we talked about the papilloma virus and as the main cause of cervical cancer in women. We also encountered the moral problems related with the vaccine against HPV, should the vaccine be applied to little girls 10 years old? Would this make girls become sexually active younger? and then class finished. Even though these moral and ethic issues are important, we did not talk about how HPV affects men. I did not know HPV could cause symptoms in men, as the whole controversy of the vaccine for women and what age should they be vaccinated overshadows the problem - HPV can also cause negative infections in males. As HPV is a sexually transmitted disease, it also affects men. The virus creates genital warts that growth on top of the penis. Warts are raised, flat, or cauliflower-shaped. They usually do not hurt. Also, warts may appear within weeks or months after sexual contact with an infected person. Consequently, HPV can also cause anal cancer a penile cancer.
Signs of anal cancer:
· Sometimes there are no signs or symptoms.
· Anal bleeding, pain, itching, or discharge.
· Swollen lymph nodes in the anal or groin area.
· Changes in bowel habits or the shape of your stool.
Signs of penile cancer:
· First signs: changes in color, skin thickening, or a build-up of tissue on the penis.
· Later signs: a growth or sore on the penis. It is usually painless, but in some cases, the sore may be painful and bleed.
· There may be no symptoms until the cancer is quite advanced.
Thus, HPV does have consequences to men. They do not seem as severe as those in women, but there is no vaccine for anal or penile cancer in men. Also, there is not an exam to determine warts or any cancer in men.
As we can see here, HPV is severe in men too. However, it is more severe and understood in women a so more effort to create a vaccine and control against the virus. Then, this raises the question if women have to be vaccinated at an early age. I think they should get vaccinated against HPV and that does not mean that girls would have premature sex. If they get vaccinated it would mean a way to protect themselves and people around them. It is a precaution method; moral issues have to be discussed by parents and schools which would have to educate their daughters/students into have save sexual relationships. Thus, parents should have to teach their daughters about the vaccine and teach them that being immune against a virus does not mean to be able/ready to have safe sexual relationships.

Reference
http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/STDFact-HPV-and-men.htm
CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal; 8/08/2000, Vol. 163 Issue 3, p324, 1/3p
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/penile/
Clinical Infectious Diseases; 9/1/2005, Vol. 41 Issue 5, p612-620, 9p
Journal of American College Health; Mar/Apr2005, Vol. 53 Issue 5, p225-230, 6p, 5 charts

How often do you clean your bath towel?

2007-12-14T09:10:00.000-08:00

One day, I was taking with my friends at a cafe, and my friend asked me if I change my bath towel everyday or not. She said that she kept using the same one and just cleaned it once a week because she didn't want to do laundry that frequently, but another friend said that he cleaned every time he used. I had never cared how often I change my bath towel, but I was really curious about that and started to do researches.

Some people might think a bath towel is not dirty at all because you use it after taking shower, and your body suppose to be clean. Obviously not. Bacteria exists basically everywhere as we know. When I search on a database, I found the one article talks about the new bath towel which is anti-bacterial. The U.S. company called WestPoint started to sell the towel that prevent mold, mildew, and the bacteria cause odour from it. According to the article, anti-bacterial industry is growing really rapidly in the States, and it is said that those market is 1 billion US dollar market then. However, the ingredients used in anti-bacterial products is now concerned by some scientists since they might have a potential to harm environment and people's health, and especially most commonly used ingredient called "triclosan" have attention from them. The new anti-bacterial towel also contains triclosan.

Some studies are done by scientists about the effect of triclosan on the environment. For instance, one study showed that triclosan would form chloroform when it react with chlorine in tap water, and chloroform formed from ticlosan could be absorbed through skins. Similarly, another study concluded that the triclosan form dioxin when it is exposed to sunlight. On the other hands, some researchers doubt if triclosan truly inhibit the growth of bacteria, such as odour-causing bacteria or other bacteria that we do not want. I thougt it is really ironic if there are not strong effectiveness of killing bacteria, and the use of triclosan just cause the environmental pollution not the protection of our health from bacteria.

One day in the lecture, we were talking about that too many sterilized products are aroud us and that may lower our immune system.I strongly agree with that opinion because our bodies are already adapted to resist some invasion from outside like virus. I believe it is necessary to pay certain attention, but the extrem attention also may cause another problem too.

Reference:
Deborah Baldwin. "Germ warfare: Anti-microbial towel newest weapon in household bacteria battle :[National Edition]. " National Post [Don Mills, Ont.] 12 Aug. 2005, A11. Canadian Newsstand Major Dailies. ProQuest. Camosun College Library, Victoria, B.C.. 14 Dec. 2007

http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/41KMDH1T6YL._AA280_.jpg (image)

Got an Infection? Here’s a Sweet Solution

2007-12-13T17:54:00.000-08:00

If you’ve ever been to New Zealand (or know someone who has), then I’m sure you’ve heard of Manuka honey. This type of honey is made by bees that take pollen from the Manuka bush, a plant that is native to New Zealand. A wide variety of Manuka honey products are manufactured and sold all over New Zealand. These include ointments, skin creams, lip balms, and honey capsules. Trust me, if you’re in New Zealand, you’ll see this stuff everywhere! But why is it so widely used? It’s a proven antimicrobial agent that’s been found to benefit anything from minor abrasions to MRSA!

For centuries people have used honey as a cure-all treatment, using it for things like sore throats and wound dressings. Only recently though have the full benefits of this sticky stuff been delved into. Why honey can be used as an antimicrobial agent is a little complex, but basically it’s a combination of its low pH, it’s osmotic effect, and the presence of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide occurs as a result of glucose oxidase, an enzyme secreted by bees. This appears to be one of the main components of the antimicrobial effectiveness of honey.

The healing properties of Manuka honey have been investigated for over 10 years in the University of Waikato Honey Research Unit in Hamilton, New Zealand. They’ve found that while regular honey has antibacterial properties, Manuka honey may have healing characteristics that trump those of other varieties. The actual reason that Manuka honey is so beneficial is still unknown, but researchers have dubbed this quality a “Unique Manuka Factor”, or UMF.

The Honey Research Unit has tested the effectiveness of honey on antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria like VRE (Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus) and MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). It was shown that both regular honey and Manuka honey had about the same effectiveness on MRSA. Both types of honey were able to inhibit growth of MRSA, and both had similar MIC’s. When VRE was tested, again both types of honey were able to inhibit growth, however Manuka honey was much more effective than regular honey. Many other types of bacteria have been tested and the results can be found here: http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/pdfs/honeyresearch/activity.pdf

So with all of these tests telling us that Manuka honey is so effective, the big question that remains is will honey be an accepted form of treatment by the medical community and general population? Doctors may be hesitant about prescribing honey to patients suffering from infected wounds. Patients may not like the thought of using honey as a type of wound dressing. Causing this type of apprehensive thinking seems to be one of the only negatives that Manuka honey suffers from.

Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3787867.stm
http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/contents.shtml
http://apis.ifas.ufl.edu/apis92/apoct92.htm

Image:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/feras_shoujah/2056811569/

Heating Things Up

2007-12-13T13:22:00.000-08:00

http://www.nationalpost.com/news/world/story.html?id=160753

Many Canadians are preparing (or embracing if you ski/snowboard!!) for one of the coldest winters in fifteen years according to Environment Canada. Meanwhile the situation is heating up in warmer parts of the globe, where the Government of Indonesia is hosting the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Bali. The conference is set to conclude later this week with persistent raging debates concerning the Kyoto Protocol and carbon emissions, involving bureaucratic jostling and finger pointing between political figures, industry members, and environmentalists of the like. In the wake of the October announcement awarding the Nobel Peace Prize for 2007 to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr. "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change" (Nobel Committee) it appears that there has been both an influx in the global audience as well as the media coverage with the increasing presence of environmental issues in headlines. I would have to say rightfully so. Even better still is Al Gore’s hockey analogy that he delivered during his speech earlier today at the UN Conference, reprimanding certain countries and the disappointing stance that they have taken thus far.

There is an abundant amount of research being conducted on the consequences that increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may have on microbial life in our oceans, and the implications that this imbalance may have. These include various issues, among them:

−an expansion of the oxygen minimum zones may trigger even greater emissions of nitrous oxide, further contributing to global warming

−aquatic food sources may be threatened by ocean acidity

−the effect on dimethyl sulphide (DMS) levels which may disrupt the food chain.

One of the greatest challenges to overcome as well, will be to provide the energy needs of the developing world and to relinquish the current dependence that most of the energy we utilize is sourced from non-renewable fossil fuels. Of course, there are many propositions of ways to accomplish this daunting task. Energy efficiency, energy conservation, reducing environmental impact, and renewable energy are rapidly becoming important factors in the global energy demand. Many efforts to make renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biofuel, and hydrogen power more commercially viable are already underway as we hear about them on a regular basis.

We all understand the vastly important role that microorganisms play in our environment. But what if we could utilize our microbial counterparts to provide a clean, renewable energy source? According to Dr. James Chong at a Science Media Centre press briefing, "by using methane produced by bacteria as a fuel source, we can reduce the amount released into the atmosphere and use up some carbon dioxide in the process" (Science Daily). This relates back to our case study on waste water treatment. We had a discussion in our tutorial about the capability to harvest methane at the end of the anaerobic process, and from landfill sites. Not to mention the numerous other sources and methods for waste decomposition. Methane is a greenhouse gas that is 23 times more effective at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. Methanogens produce about one billion tonnes of methane every year, and can feed on waste from farms, food, and homes to make biogas, which is already being integrated in Europe (Science Daily).

This may sound idealistic, but the chance for humanity to solve the predicament of the energy challenge alongside enhanced processes for consumption and waste degradation is the ultimate solution. I also hope that the government of Canada will make some wise decisions for both the environment and for our future in the coming days.

Sources:

Canadian Press (2007, November 30). Blast from the Past? Coldest Winter in 15 Years, Environment Canada Says. CBC News. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from
<http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2007/11/30/winter-forecast.html?ref=rss>.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from <http://unfccc.int/2860.php>.

Marchildon, Sarah (2007, December 13). David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from <http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Bali_Blog/>.

Norwegian Nobel Committee (2007, October 12). The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from <http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2007/>.

Panetta, Alexander (2007, December 13). Canadian Press. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from
<http://start.shaw.ca/start/enCA/News/WorldNewsArticle.htm?src=w121327A.xml>.

Society for General Microbiology (2007, December 12). Nitrous Oxide From Ocean Microbes Could Be Adding To Global Warming. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from

<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071210103955.htm>.

Society for General Microbiology (2007, December 12). Aquatic Food Sources May Be Threatened By Rising Carbon Dioxide. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from

<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071210103939.htm>.

Society for General Microbiology (2007, December 12). Climate Gas Could Disrupt Food Chain. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from
<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071210103944.htm>.

Society for General Microbiology (2007, December 12). Methane From Microbes: A Fuel For The Future. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 12, 2007, from
<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071210103934.htm>.

Microbes and Oil

2007-12-12T13:32:00.000-08:00

(a piece of bitumen sand)

It is estimated that the worlds oil supply was around three trillion barrels, and that so far we have diminished that supply by between one and two thirds. At the current rate the world is consuming oil, we all know that eventually the oil supply will run out, perhaps in near future (several decades). That is why the search for an alternate energy source is such a huge, huge industry today. Although, maybe not as well known, is the fact that currently, there are projects in progress that are attempting to use microbes to increase the yield of oil resevoirs around the world. If the microbes work to their maximum potential, the scientists behind the projects believe they could increase oil production by 10 percent.

This project is based on the discovery that a certain kind of bacteria is naturally breaking down crude oil in resevoirs. But naturally, this process is very slow. So the idea behind the project is very simple. The plan is, basically, to speed up the natural process by adding some fertilizer to the resevoirs, in order to increase the growth of the bacteria and the speed at which they produce methane. Another positive about this project is the fact that it also has the potential to produce energy from deposits of naturally degraded oil, bitumen sands.

Bituminous sands, more commonly known as oil sands( or 'tar sands') are deposits of heavy, high density oil that cannot be easily removed from resevoirs, unlike common, less dense crude oil. Here in Canada, most of our oil comes from oil sands, however, the techniques used currently to extract energy from oil sands are very expensive and involve large amounts of energy. If these techniques could be replaced by natural degradation with the bacteria, large amounts of money and energy would be saved.

Another positive about microbial extraction is the fact that it is much more environmentally friendly. Bitumen (product of current oil sand extraction processes)is a high carbon dioxide emitter, while methane (produced by the bacteria) is much lower. It seems that this project would be a perfect replacement for the older, much more expensive techniques being used to extract oil sands today. The only drawback of this proposed technique is that it only obtains 10 percent of the available energy, while the other processes can obtain 17 percent. Although this process will not solve the worlds oil crisis, it is a temporary way to get more energy from the oil that we have left.

Sources:

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/earth/2007/12/12/scioil112.xml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_sands

http://www.nature.com/news/2007/071212/full/news.2007.375.html

Picture:

http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/system/files%3Ffile%3Dimages/oilsand.jpg&imgrefurl=http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/taxonomy/term/41%3Ffrom%3D70&h=301&w=450&sz=40&hl=en&start=2&sig2=CNpl9eo1ueIVar-lsdoC-g&tbnid=jM_1NZPeUEu7bM:&tbnh=85&tbnw=127&ei=MqxkR_SZGJHGgQL73ZX-DQ&prev=/images%3Fq%3Doil%2Bsands%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

Influenza

2007-12-11T19:18:00.000-08:00

I was at work at BC Ferries in the boat when I got the flu. I started to feel really ill and was unable to work anymore and I ended up going home. I took three days off of work thinking that I would feel better and would be able to go back to work. As the three days past, my sickness only got worse. I went to the doctors and they told me it was a flu and prescribed me antibiotics. My condition only worsened. About nine days later I went to the emergency. The doctors diagnosed me with bronchitis. My flu led to the development of bronchitis. I was in the hospital for two weeks and on bed rest for two weeks. My health still began to decline when I was at home so three days later my grandparents decided to take me to the emergency again, and the doctors then diagnosed me with pnemonia. When I was nearing the end of my bed rest, my body had gotten very weak. I could not walk up more than three stairs. I had lost so much weight and had became lactose intolerant. I was not able to function properly in life and I was not as active as I used to be. I could not get out of bed. I started to blame myself becuase of my self - weakness. So I tried to get out and play tennis and become active again. I had a shortness of breath, I heard myself wheezing when I tried to breathe and I felt very exhuasted. My brother is a pharmacist and he suggested that I try my grandpas bronchodilater because it would help open my bronchule tubes and help me breathe. When it did not work I went to the doctor again. After examinations, my doctor told me that my alveoli did not function and that I had aquired asthma. I have lost my belief in doctors due to misdiagnosis. When I had pneumonia, they diagnosed me with bronchitis and when I problems breathing they did not do any tests until almost a month and half later, where they told me I had asthma.

Influenza (flu) is an illness that is caused by viruses that infect the respiratory tract. There are three different types of influenza viruses, Influenza type A, B and C. Influenza type A is the most common type and causes the most serious epidemics in history. Influenza type B also causes epidemics but is not as severe as influenza type A. Influenza type C causes mild respiratory infections which are also common colds. There are approximately 600 to 1500 deaths every year in Canada. These deaths usually happen around winter time. Influenza is caused by mutations through RNA. Another way is when a host is infected with the influenza virus which develops an antibody against that virus. As the virus changes, the first antibody stops recognizing the newer virus and then reinfection occurs. The first antibody might provide partial protection against reinfection with an influenza virus.

The symptoms of the influenza virus are high fever, sore throat, coughing, headache, muscle aches, nausea, diarrhea and fatique which can get quite extreme. It is necessary to take a vaccine every year due to the different influenza virus strains that circulate due to mutations. Another method to prevent influenza virus is antivirual agents that cause the big flu (infection caused by avian influenza type A in birds). Vaccination can prevent serious illness. Neuraminidase inhibitor is another method which also prevents descended virions from emergring from the infected cells. Influenza virus further leads to life threating illnesses like pneumonia and asthma.

http://online.camosun.ca/d2l/orgTools/ouHome/ouHome.asp?ou=8260

http://www.cdc.gov/flu/

http://www.cdcfoundation.org/siteimages/pages/title_influenza_1.jpg

The Ethanol Machine

2007-12-11T15:34:00.000-08:00

The hunt for efficient, responsible fuel has yet to dent the demand for oil, but thanks to an army of microbes the days of hydrocarbons are growing short. Ethanol has yet to be considered as a real alternative, mostly due to the use of natural gas in its production, and the low efficiency of current systems. To date, the main fuel for the ethanol industry is corn, which has very low energy content, and is required for other facilities of society. Using corn would continue our cycle of self demise, as well as drive up costs of agriculture by raising the demand for corn.

So ethanol is useless? Negative! Ethanol from corn is inept, but ethanol is starting to be produced from other sources. Companies like Novozymes are cranking out breakthrough enzymes that can breakdown cellulose into ethanol, and they are finding these enzymes in microbes and fungi. The best thing about this new ability to break down cellulose is that it comes from so many sources, basically any plant matter. Apart from that, some companies have reported production efficiency equal to or better than natural gas production, around %80.

Cellulases are being discovered in a variety of forms. The fungus Trichoderma reesei, was found by investigating rapidly rotting tents in the South Pacific during WWII. Today it has some very adept cellulose bustin’ moves that make it an ideal ethanol middleman. Other powerful enzymes are being discovered in the guts of termites, where wild bacteria help the bugs digest wood.

Ethanol produced in Brazil from sugarcane has been rated as producing 56% less emissions as gasoline, and boasts an 8:1 output to input energy ratio. Brazil produces almost 4 billion gallons a year, providing 40% of their fuel for cars and light trucks. So why can’t we stack up, green-washed as our society likes to think it is? Most importantly, we’re investing in corn ethanol production, a throwback to the stone age. The capacity to produce ethanol from sources with better, cleaner yields is there, it just needs to be thrust upon North American manufacturers before its too late to shift production.

Sources:

http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/02/70208

Wired Magazine, Oct. 2007 , pg.159-167

National Geographic, Oct. 2007, pg47-48

With A Little Help From Our Friends

2007-12-10T16:03:00.000-08:00

With the advent of global warming, the pursuit for the technology to replace petroleum-powered engines is at the forefront of environmental research. Among the frontrunners is the hydrogen fuel cell. Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, is used to produce electrical energy with the only emission being warm water. While this seems like a highly promising alternative, the cost, and the pollution created by producing the needed molecular hydrogen (H₂) does not solve the problems associated with fossil fuel burning engines. If H₂ could be generated cheaply, without creating pollution, mass-produced clean running vehicles could be one step closer to reality. Currently, research is being developed to employ bacteria for the production of H₂.

Cyanobacteria, formerly known as blue-green algae, obtain their energy through photosynthesis, where light energy is converted to biochemical energy by a photochemical reaction, and CO₂ is reduced to organic compounds. However, under certain conditions, instead of reducing CO₂, cyanobacteria consume biochemical energy to produce H₂, with the service of the enzymes hydrogenase and nitrogenase. A newly acquired process uses the consumption of wastewater and other biomass by bacteria to produce four times more H₂than previous efforts. While the bacteria produce H₂by themselves, the fermentation process has a limit. When the bacteria are jolted with a small amount of electricity, approximately 0.25 volts, the bacteria are then able to break down acetic acid into CO₂and H₂, a step they were unable to make on their own. "Basically, we use the same microbial fuel cell we developed to clean wastewater and produce electricity. However, to produce hydrogen, we keep oxygen out of the microbial fuel cell and add a small amount of power into the system.” said Penn State Professor Bruce Logan. “The technique, in theory, could obtain hydrogen from any biodegradable, dissolved, organic matter, including human, agricultural or industrial wastewater while simultaneously cleaning the wastewater.”

While this research is a hopeful idea to generate H₂cheaply and without environmental impact, it is still in its preliminary stages. Nevertheless, the idea of being able to employ bacteria to help with the campaign against global warming is fascinating. It is amazing think that something as tiny as bacteria could be a part of the resolution to something as big as global warming.

References

http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/45296/story.htm

http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/04/26/bacteria_hydrogen_production/

http://www.livescience.com/technology/050426_hydrogen_waste.html

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/05/030521092358.htm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e0g.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria

Not So Sweet

2007-12-10T15:51:00.001-08:00

Bees, the busy little bugs responsible for the production of the delicious natural sweetener honey and for the pollination of approximately one third of the United States' agricultural crops, which includes apples, peaches, pears, nectarines, cherries, strawberries and pumpkins, are disappearing. Known as Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), this abnormality is now wiping out bee populations across the United States.

Preliminary research points to the fungus Nosema ceranae, responsible for widespread loss of bee colonies in Europe and Asia. Nosema ceranae, a single-celled parasitic fungus has been found in affected hives around the country. Losses of bee populations are not unusual, weather, pesticides and infestations by pests, such as the Varroa mite, have destroyed significant numbers of colonies in the past, especially in the 1960s and the 1970s. Currently, beekeepers in Canada, England and in 28 of the United States, have reported extraordinary losses. “About a quarter of the estimated 2.4 million colonies across the United States have been lost since last fall, said Jerry Hayes of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services in Gainesville.” There is some evidence that the antibiotic fumagillin can be used to control Nosema ceranae as it affects the closely related parasite called Nosema apis, which also affects bees. "There was a lot of stuff from Nosema, about 25 percent of the total," Evan W. Skowronski of the U.S. Army's Edgewood Chemical Biological Center in Aberdeen, Md. said. "That meant there was more than there was bee RNA. That leads me to believe that the bee died from that particular pathogen." However, research shows that a fungus may be one of the many possible causes for CCD. Several viruses, including those of the newly recognized genus called iflaviruses, have been identified in ground-up bee samples. It has not been determined whether or not these small, RNA-containing viruses that also infect the Varroa mite are pathogenic to bees.

Whether it is a fungus, a virus or another unexplored cause for the loss of bee populations, CCD is a reality, and bee populations are in decline. The importance of these hard working insects is unparalleled. These unsung heroes are crucial for the agricultural industry. A loss of commercial hives would be disastrous. Not to mention the loss of honey as a natural sweetener enjoyed by many in their morning cup of tea.

Nosema ceranae

A parasite of arthropods, a single celled fungus that primarily affects the Asiatic honey bee, Apis cerana. It may cause nosemosis, the most widespread of the adult honeybee diseases. The dormant stage of nosema is a long-lived spore, which is resistant to temperature extremes and dehydration.

Iflaviruses

Iflaviruses are members of the genus Iflavirus, which have similarities to other viruses with positive single stranded RNA as their genetic information.

References

http://arstechnica.com/journals/science.ars/2007/04/27/sanity-returns-bee-collapse-linked-to-fungus

http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Apr/25/br/br6927458130.html

http://www.propeller.com/viewstory/2007/04/28/experts-may-have-found-whats-bugging-the-bees-los-angeles-times/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fnews%2Fla-sci-bees26apr26%2C0%2C7437491.story%3Ftrack%3Dmostviewed-storylevel&frame=true

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformed_Wing_Virus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosema_ceranae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosema_apis

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/Ictv/fs_iflav.htm

Cancer-resistant Mouse is Created

2007-12-07T16:38:00.000-08:00

A mouse resistant to cancer, even highly-aggressive types, has been created by researchers at the University of Kentucky. The breakthrough stems from a discovery by UK College of Medicine professor of radiation medicine Vivek Rangnekar and a team of researchers who found a tumor-suppressor gene called "Par-4" in the prostate. The researchers discovered that the Par-4 gene kills cancer cells, but not normal cells. There are very few molecules that specifically fight against cancer cells, giving it a potentially therapeutic application. Rangnekar's study is unique in that mice born with this gene are not developing tumors. The mice grow normally and have no defects. In fact, the mice possessing Par-4 actually live a few months longer than the control animals, indicating that they have no toxic side effects.

"We originally discovered Par-4 in the prostate, but it's not limited to the prostate. The gene is expressed in every cell type that we've looked at and it induces the death of a broad range of cancer cells, including of course, cancer cells in the prostate," said Rangnekar. The gene helps cells self-destruct when they become cancerous. The modified mice -- which came from a strain that's normally vulnerable to the disease -- resisted researchers' attempts to give them breast, pancreatic, head and neck cancer. "The interesting part of this study is that this killer gene is selective for killing cancer cells. It will not kill normal cells and there are very, very few selective molecules out there like this." To further investigate the potential therapeutic benefits of this gene, researchers introduced it into the egg of a mouse. That egg was then planted into a surrogate mother. "The mouse itself does not express a large number of copies of this gene, but the pups do and then their pups start expressing the gene," Rangnekar said. "So, we've been able to transfer this activity to generations in the mouse."

The implications for humans could be that through bone marrow transplantation, the Par-4 molecule could potentially be used to fight cancer cells in patients without the toxic and damaging side effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. "When a cancer patient goes to the clinic, they undergo chemotherapy or radiation and there are potential side effects associated with these treatments," Rangnekar said. "We got interested in looking for a molecule which will kill cancer cells and not kill normal cells, but also would not be toxic with regard to the production of side effects to the entire organism. We are thinking of this in a holistic approach that not only would get rid of the tumor, but also not harm the organism as a whole. Before this animal study, we published a lot of work indicating that in cell culture, there's no killing of normal cells. This is the proof that it doesn't kill normal cells because the mouse is alive and healthy."

In the short term, bone marrow transplants of Par-4 producing cells could be tested as an alternative to risky chemical and radiation therapies in people. Those approaches destroy both healthy and diseased tissue, while Par-4's protein affects only cancer cells. Rangnekar admits there is much more work to be done before this research can be applied to humans, but agrees that is the most logical next step.

References:

http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2007/11/scientists-make.html
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-11/uok-cmd112607.php
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071127080344.htm
http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/67/19/9276
Image: courtesy of corbis, www.corbis.com

Say Hello To My Little Friends!

2007-12-02T13:50:00.000-08:00

Imagine popping a supplement of live bacteria in a pill form. No, its not fear factor, these critters are known as probiotics and provide several health benefits. Acidophilus is one of these healthy bacteria that resides in the digestive system and vagina that maintains the bacterial balance within the body. Several studies has concluded that our friendly friends may actually have anticancer properties, help with allergies and yeast infections, enhance the immune system, lower cholesterol and possibly help manage weight. After reading that sentence you are probably pretty eager to pick up some of these helpful buddies. The healthy bacteria are found in several tasty foods that you can enjoy on a daily basis like yogurt and cheese.
Just so you can compare, there are approximately 100,000 billion viable bacteria in your digestive tract which includes at least 400 different species of bacteria. That is crazy, especially considering that your body is composed of 10,000 billion cells. Can you believe that there are 10 bacterial organisms for every cell?
Among the species there are two strains, Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria which are found in yogurt and cheese. Many strains are used in probitotic supplements such Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum and the yeast Saccharomyces boulardi.
Let us take a closer look at what exactly our little friends do in our bodies. The gastrointestinal tract is a major player in an individual’s immune function and overall nutritional well-being. Since acidophilus chill in the intestine, they have the ability to maintain a healthy concentration that promote proper digestion and displace disease promoting yeast and bacteria. Lactobacillus acidophilus breaks down food which leads to the production of hydrogen peroxide, lactic acid and other by-products that establish a “not-so-happy” environment for any undesired bacteria. This probiotic also produces lactase which is the enzyme that catalyzes lactose into simple sugars. This specific enzyme is not produced by individuals who are lactose intolerant. So, if you want to enjoy a lil’ DQ, eat your cheese strings!
Probiotics are also administered for several potential therapeutic methods. These bacteria are used to ease symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and potentially inflammatory bowel disease. They are also linked to reducing and even preventing urinary tract infections, cystitis and vaginal yeast infections. The Certain strains of our helpful helpers may even enhance the immune response and reduce cholesterol but further research must be conducted.
So discover the wonderful world of yogurt and embrace some cheese into your life. Go to the grocery store, splurge on some “go-gurt” and invite those critters in!

http://www.medcentral.org/body.cfm?id=227
http://www.ajc.com/blogs/content/shared-blogs/ajc/healthyeating/entries/2007/03/19/healthy_bacteria.html#postcomment
http://altmedicine.about.com/cs/digestiveproblems/a/Acidophilus.htm
http://www.naturemade.com/WellnessTopics/wt_articles.asp?articleid=106
Image:
http://www.markhackett.co.uk/images/helpful_bacteria_sm.jpg

What to do about the tide?

2007-12-01T17:15:00.000-08:00

“And all the waters that were in the river turned to blood. And the fish that were in the river died, and the water stank". The naturally occurring phenomenon known as red tide has been present as early as recorded in Exodus, the 10 plaques of Egypt. Even thought the exact marine conditions are unknown, red tide occurs through rapid division of microscopic algae, Karenia brevis, causing a dense accumulation that result in a generally red discoloration. These algae include marine dinoflagellates produce biotoxins that contaminate bivalve shellfish and affect the central nervous system of fish resulting in paralysis and eventual death. These contaminations have had a direct link to any seafood enthusiasts who like to “mow’ down on these tasty dishes. So, how do we help our “shellfish-loving” friends?
The Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program was established by the federal government that ensures the safe consumption of shellfish. This program is comprised of three federal government agencies. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is responsible for the monitoring of biotoxins in the shellfish in the designated harvesting areas. They register and inspect potential contaminated fish and shellfish at specialized processing plants. Along with Health Canada, the food safety guideline for contaminates in foods are established. Environment Canada assists by providing water quality analysis in the harvesting grounds for shellfish and identifies waters that do not meet standards. The third federal agency, Department of Fisheries and Oceans patrols and closes harvesting areas where toxin levels exceed safety standards. The program mandates the direct sampling of shellfish and the analysis for a variety of toxins. These testing sites throughout Canada regularly tests for toxins in designated harvesting areas.
The Canadian National Research Council is in the process of developing analytical technologies (that’s right…go ACB) that can provide early warning signs of upcoming red tide events. These technologies have the ability to detect the toxins in the shellfish and the toxic algae in the water. These future methods may be used to cease shellfish harvesting before contamination. The toxins can be eliminated if the contaminated shellfish are left in the ocean and the toxic algae have left the area.
The National Research Council has also made progress on a completely separate level in regards to shellfish genetics. Researchers have recently identified mutations in soft-shell clams. These mutations establish immunity to toxins allowing a high toxin level. The soft-shell clams that do not have this immunity can only tolerate much lower levels of toxins. Imagine if the genetic characteristics of low toxin tolerance can be transferred to the other shellfish? Researchers believe this would provide a viable solution for the future for both human safety and economic prosperity.
Bottom line is that you definitely do not have to give up your shellfish, just be aware and eat with care. Also, we now know that once graduated with the ACB program you have the potential to contribute to this red tide dilemma.
Giddy Up!

http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/education/innovations/spotlight/red_tide.html
http://seagrant.gso.uri.edu/factsheets/redtide.html
http://www.enotes.com/science-fact-finder/environment/what-red-tide-what-causes
http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/home-accueil_e.htm
http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/concen/cause/redroue.shtml
Image:
http://serc.carleton.edu/images/microbelife/topics/red_tide_genera.v3.jpg

RSV: A Common Danger to Infants and Children

2007-11-30T20:05:00.001-08:00

Keeping our children safe should be our first concern, especially when it comes to viruses. One of the most common causes of human disease are severe viral infections. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a threatening cause of lower respiratory infection in infants and young children.

RSV is a negative sense, single stranded RNA virus from the family Paramyxoviridae and of the sub family Pneumovirinae. The virion has an envelope with two specific glycoproteins, and can vary in shape and size. The two glycoproteins that are virally specific are G and F. G is in charge of binding the virus to a host cell, and F for fusing the viral envelope with the host cell’s plasma membrane, so the virus can enter. The F protein also was helpful in naming the virus because it also stimulates the fusion of the plasma membranes of the infected cells. The outcome is the formation of a “sanctum or multinucleated mass of fused cells“. The multinucleated syncytia causes inflammation, alveolar thickening, and the filling of the alveolar spaces with fluid.
It is a major cause of respiratory illness in infants and it causes infection in the lungs and in breathing passages. It is highly contagious, and hard to differentiate from the common cold, especially in healthy infants. It is brutal because you can never be immune to it even when you get infected. You can become infected several times, even within the same season.
No vaccine exists but infants who are have a weak immune systems or were born prematurely can receive monthly injections. A type of Prophylactic drug uses Palivizumab which are a type of monoclonal Antibody directed against the RSV proteins. These monthly injections are to be taken just before the RSV season ( from fall to spring) starts and for continued for about five months.
It is the most common cause of bronchiolitis, and pneumonia among infants. For those children who are immunocompromised this virus can lead to severe respiratory illness requiring hospitalization, and sometimes even death. This is because infant lungs cannot compensate for the decreased oxygen flow.
Symptoms include fever, cough, rhinitis, and nasal congestion. Others are listlessness, poor or diminished appetite.
It is easy to contract this virus, to prevent exposure of your child may be difficult because it is so widespread but some common safe practices are always a good precaution. Washing your hands and keeping your environment clean. The virus becomes inactivated the soap and water and disinfectants and it can only survive a few hours in the environment by itself. So try to stay away from infected persons.
If you infant is a regular healthy child then treatment may just include keeping your infant or child hydrated with plenty of fluids and oxygen, and keep the air moist with a cool mist vaporizer. And as an extra precaution do not give your infant aspirin while they are having any of these symptoms because it can lead to Reye’s syndrome.

Prescott, Harley, & Klein’s Microbiology seventh edition: page 919
http://health.lifestyle.yahoo.ca/channel_sections.asp?channel_id=2026&relation_id=23703
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus
http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/infections/lung/rsv.html
http://pathology5.pathology.jhmi.edu/micro/Image23.jpg
http://www.flupatrol.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/big-adenovirus-v3.gif

THE AFFECT OF RED TIDE ON OUR PALATES

2007-11-29T20:32:00.000-08:00

Picture From .. Google Images

In the summer of 2006 my friend and I were getting set to do some travelling on Vancouver Island. While the lure of Vancouver's beauty was compelling I have to admit that the promise of fresh luscious seafood was something we were both looking forward to immensely.

Our first dinner out of town was in a snug comfortable marina on the coast. Upon being seated, to our dismay we were told that there was no scallops or oysters for us to dine on. The waiter explained that there was a red tide alert on the West Coast, an outbreak of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) was reported on the CBC news, and the only seafood that was not affected by these toxins were crab and shrimp. I swallowed my disappointment and proceeded to do justice to a large plate of shrimp and crab. After dinner my curiosity got the better of me and I went off to my room to do some research.

When certain algae go through their growth period, or bloom, "a single cell may replicate itself one million times in two to three weeks", reported the Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History. The algae captures and uses the sun's energy to grow. The growth of algae is an essential life process as it is the first step in transferring solar energy into aquatic food webs. These organisms thrive and multiply primarily during the Spring and Summer in response to the intensity from the sun and nutrients in the ocean water. During bloom reproduction the shallow warm sea water becomes discoloured as a result of various plant pigments used to trap sunlight. Depending on the species the water will reflect many colours including yellow, pink, violet, green, brown, however red is the most common pigment. This is how the name "Red Tide" is obtained.

When the water cools, the red tide can assume its dormant form where preformed cysts fall and accumulate on the ocean floor. Then later when the water is warmer and the sunlight is present, these cysts can germinate causing them to burst open and release swimmer cells into the ocean. These swimmer cells make their way into the marine life and their toxins are stored in the intestinal tracts and guts of most commonly oysters, muscles, clams and scallops.

So this is why I couldn't enjoy oysters on my vacation...interesting!

The most common of the harmful blooms is Alexandrium, which causes PSP via saxitoxin. Saxitoxin is a term used to include up to forty known toxins which disrupt the proper function of ion channels in neurons, which can lead to paralyzes of the respiratory system, and in worst cases death.

Global warming and pollution are on the rise and so is red tide. Not everyone enjoys fresh seafood but the impact of red tide is far more severe than not being able to eat seafood. What are we doing globally to stop these outbreaks? Who's jobs are at risk? Is the research being done? What are the findings? These questions and more must be brought to the forefront of government agencies worldwide. For myself, its not just about oysters anymore.

I'd be interested in hearing from anyone doing research in this area or who has any knowledge or experience with red tides they can share with me.

The Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History. "Red Tide". 22 October 2006

How a Toxic Algal Bloom Occurs

Northwest Fisheries Science Center and Washington Sea Grant Program

Poisonous Toilet

2007-11-29T16:48:00.000-08:00

An inconceivable volume of sewage, over 37.8 billion litres with a raw discharge of 34.2 billion litres, is generated by the CRD (Capital Regional District) annually. Currently, Victoria has a major issue with the way sewage is processed and disposed of through the Clover Point and Macaulay Point pump stations. Until recently, numerous reports regarding the implementation of further processing facilities have been ignored. Some think processing facilities will hamper the beauty of the city; yet, from another perspective, these plants represent what Victoria should be: a steward of the environment. Implementing change in sewage treatment is necessary for the environment as well as for the way Victoria is viewed by other nations.

As we have seen, sewage is a potentially dangerous substance and must be handled properly. It is considered a variable liquid mixture and is composed of various materials: human waste, wash water, general urban rainfall run-off, surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources, as well as industrial cooling and processing waters. Approximately 95% is water with the remainder consisting of bacteria, organic particles, inorganic particles, animals, macro-solids, gases, emulsions and toxins. In order to contain these waste products, prior to discharge into the ocean, treatment facilities are required. Sewage treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from wastewater or sewage and produces a liquid effluent, suitable for disposal to the natural environment, and a toxic sludge. There are three stages of treatment and currently the CRD pumps raw sewage directly into the ocean using only primary treatment.

The receiving waters are the Strait of Juan de Fuca primarily, and the Strait of Georgia. These vast bodies of water, through agitation and current, are expected to be the sewage treatment facilities for Victoria and surrounding areas. Unfortunately, this is not the case. As seen by underwater photography, there is an area of polluting waste the size of Beacon Hill Park and as tall as B.C. Place at the end of the Clover Point outfall. From this site sewage plumes can be detected up to eight months of the year. The toxins in sewage go further than just polluting the local beaches; they integrate their way into the health of our families, the environment, and the local economy. In the article on a website called ecobc.org, Jennifer McLarty of Victoria News states ,”Using CRD samples taken from outfalls at Macaulay and Clover points between 2000 and 2003, Sierra Legal biologists discovered 19 out of 29 provincially monitored substances were present and that they exceeded legislated limits. The list of potentially harmful chemicals includes mercury, lead, copper and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons…” (1). Many of these toxic substances are bioaccumulants and contribute to biomagnification. These pollutants drastically affect benthic animals and organisms, and as a result the effluent is damaging shellfish populations: bylaws against harvesting have been established. Not only is primary treatment insufficient, “approximately 200-300 million litres of overflows and by-passes occur during moderate to heavy rainfall events.” (2). These numbers are staggering and treatment must be implemented immediately so these bodies of water do not turn into another one of the worlds “dead zones”.

In 2003, the CRD expanded its regional source control program. The program was implemented to control the amount of toxic waste introduced to the system from sources such as industrial, commercial, or residential sites. This is a move in the right direction; unfortunately, the main concern is the overall outfall produced by Victoria. Reports from the previous federal environment minister, former Victoria MP David Anderson, say there is no scientific evidence of the need for treatment. Furthermore, B.C. Environment Minister Barry Penner, who had refused to commit money for sewage treatment in Greater Victoria, has recently defended the practice of pumping screened sewage into the ocean; he said that "science" would determine when the region would treat its sewage, not politics. Unfortunately, this “science” experiment is impossible to measure and does not have the proper means of composting. According to Dr. Ishiguro, Professor of the Microbiology Department at the University of Victoria, “ [First] we do not know where our sewage is going; [second] we do not know what is happening to it; and [last] we do not know how much “fertilizer” our waters will take… It is essential to understand that the breakdown of organic matter in any composting system, and this includes secondary storage treatment, is carried out by the metabolic activities of a complex community of organisms”(3). In addition, the areas used as control sites to measure and compare the effects of sewage on the environment are partially contaminated. Based on the 25 year LWMP (liquid waste management plan) no commitment to upgrade treatment levels at the main plants had been addressed and no discernable infrastructure changes had been made since 1999. Only recently has the LWMP been revised and progress is under way. Regrettably, Victoria was the only candidate amongst 22 cities in B.C. to get suspended from the National Sewage Report Card produced by the Sierra Legal Defence Fund.

Many cities around the world utilize their waste efficiently. These countries have national standards for sewage treatment and have devised ways of harnessing the byproducts of waste management. Methane is a common product of sewage decomposition by anaerobic digestion (the breakdown of organic matter without the presence of oxygen). Since most sewage is capable of this, a remarkable alternative to flushing sewage directly into the ocean is Biofuel. In addition, other biomass products can be used for agriculture. As well as harnessing the gas emissions, the heavy metals extracted from the waste are profitable commodities; thus, the profits from these renewable resources will have a significant impact on the costs of operation of treatment facilities. The CRD has already begun to lessen the impacts due to sewage run off, Leachate from the Hartland Landfill and Recycling Area used to run untreated into the sewage and surrounding areas. Techniques to harness renewable energy produced by the byproducts of decomposition have been implemented. As a result, the environmental impact this facility has had on surrounding ecosystems is slowly being restored: a difficult task. Therefore, applying certain methods, as long as it is not to late, Victoria has the ability to reverse the severe damage done to the ocean due to untreated sewage. Mr. Floatie and friends have made a video called "Mr. Floatie Pushes for Poo Power" to promote resource recovery sewage treatment for the CRD!

I never understood the crude saying, “Flush twice, send water to the States”, but now the meaning is as clear as sewer can be.

References:

1. Victoria News. “Enviro group say CRD data confirms pollution.” ecobc. 19 Nov. 2005.
< http://www.ecobc.org/NewsToday/2005/11/TodaysNews1633/ >. (20 Nov. 2007).

2. Sierra Legal Defence Fund. 2004. The national sewage report card (Number three): Grading the Sewage Treatment of 22 Canadian cities.

<http://sierralegal.org/reports/sewage_report_card_III.pdf>. (20 Nov. 2007).

3. TBuck Suzuki Environmental Foundation. 2005. Victoria Sewage: Separating Myth from Fact.

< http://www.bucksuzuki.org/publications/Transcript%20 Sewage% 20Forum %20Final.pdf >.

(20 Nov. 2007).

Cancer-Killing Vaccinia Virus

2007-11-29T11:54:00.000-08:00

Researchers at Stanford University and David Kirn at Jennerex Biotherapeutics in San Francisco, California have engineered the vaccinia virus into a cancer killing machine, called JX-594. The virus was engineered from the vaccinia virus (cousin of smallpox) and spreads more easily within cancer tumours thanks to a 'tail' composed of actin, and it is believed that it will be safe for human use.

Viral genes were deleted in order to restrict virus replication to cancer cells (deletions in the viral thymidine kinase (TK) and vaccinia growth factor (VGF) ). Without thymidine kinase, the virus cannot replicate and cause damage in normal, healthy tissue. The resulting virus infects cancer cells while leaving healthy cells alone.

In addition, the researchers also spliced a gene (human GM-CSF) into the virus that makes it produce granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which induces the body’s own immune system to recognize and attack tumor cells by releasing white blood cells. After the virus has destroyed most of the tumors, it stimulates an elevated immune system response, that will mop up remaining cancer cells.

Beginning in July 2006 researchers started treating 13 patients with advanced liver cancer by administering the JX-594 virus directly into the subjects' tumours every three weeks. According to Kirn, the patients entering this trial had a poor prognosis – all previous therapies had failed, and they had an expected survival of only three to four months. He says that the JX-594 treatment seemed to slow the progression of the disease in this small group of patients: seven of the participants survived for more than eight months, of whom three are still alive today, over 15 months later

In a newly published paper appearing in the Journal Clinical Investigation, another modified vaccinia virus called JX-963 was developed, which is a nearly identical virus to JX-594, and reduced liver tumour growth in rabbits. More than 80% of the animals treated with the JX-963 showed a greater than 50% reduction in tumour size. Based on the positive results from the preliminary clinical trial and recent animal experiments, Kirn says his team will conduct phase II trials to see whether the JX-594 virus can help treat other types of tumours, such as head and neck cancers. Human trials are expected to begin early next year.

References:

Journal reference: Journal of Clinical Investigation: Rational strain selection and engineering creates a broad-spectrum, systemically effective oncolytic poxvirus, JX-963 (http://content.the-jci.org/articles/view/32727)
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12839-gm-virus-shrinks-cancer-tumours-in-humans.html
http://www.wired.com/medtech/genetics/news/2007/10/cancer_virus#
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071025174714.htm
http://www.jennerex.com/products-jx-963.html
Image from www.the-scientist.com

Tetanus Antitoxin

2007-11-29T11:15:00.000-08:00

The other day at work I had a revelation. Either I had never sold tetanus antitoxin or I had never really put two and two together until taking this course. The idea that we actually become ill, not from the bacteria itself, but from the toxins they produce, has stuck in my mind ever since the famous “egg salad sandwich” class. So, when I dispensed tetanus antitoxin for a horse that had been castrated the previous day, it got me thinking….

Tetanus is a disease caused by the bacteria Clostridium tetani, which can be found in hospitals, dust, the feces and intestinal tract of horses and humans, and consequently found in the soil. It can contaminate many kinds of wounds, including the umbilici of foals and surgical incisions (Ah ha!).

An often fatal disease, tetanus is one of those illnesses that horses are most susceptible to and should be vaccinated for annually. The vaccine, called tetanus toxoid, is very safe and induces long-lasting immunity. Vaccination is the only proven method of prevention against diseases like tetanus, where there is no known cure and where treatment is usually unsuccessful. Side effects from the tetanus toxoid vaccine are very rare and should be outweighed by the benefits of vaccinating.

Clostridium tetani enters the body via a variety of different types of wounds, surgical incisions, and natural means including foal umbilici and retained placenta. After entrance, the bacteria emit powerful toxins that affect the central nervous system by blocking neurotransmission, and thus inducing involuntary muscle contractions and spasms. The first symptoms to occur include paralysis of the jaw muscles and the muscles around the wound, body spasms or convulsions, stiff legged movement and pricked ears, progressing on to muscles so rigid that the horse often falls and is not able to get up again. Death results from dehydration and starvation due to paralysis and/or from respiratory muscle paralysis. On average, the incubation period for tetanus is 8 days. However, bacterial spores can remain dormant in muscle tissue until trauma produces the much desired low oxygen environment.

If a horse has never been vaccinated against tetanus and there is a possibility for Clostridium tetani to enter the body (like the horse that had just been castrated), tetanus antitoxin should be administered along with the tetanus toxoid to prevent infection at a later date. The antitoxin is an antibody capable of neutralizing a toxin (Clostridium tetani toxin). It induces short-lived (about 2-3 weeks) but immediate protection against tetanus. Made from the blood of horses that have been repeatedly injected with large amounts of Clostridium tetani toxin, the antitoxin is considered a treatment, not a vaccine as it does not provide any long term protection. Therefore, when an unvaccinated animal sustains a wound, the antitoxin should be administered as protection for the first few weeks while the tetanus toxoid takes time to stimulate long term immunity (approximately 3-4 weeks).

Vaccine protocols should also be followed for humans, especially when working closely with horses. It is recommended that the human tetanus vaccine be updated every 10 years. However, even with antitoxin, there is still no 100% guarantee and proper, preventive care should still be taken when treating open wounds, both human and horse.

REFERENCES:

http://www.oregonequine.com/imdetails.htm

http://www.noah.co.uk/issues/briefingdoc/20-equinevaccination.htm

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/horses/facts/info_tetanus.htm

www.pfizeranimalhealth.com.au

Gene Therapy -- A Possible Cure for Blindness

2007-11-28T16:08:00.000-08:00

Every now and then I come across an article or hear a story on the news that makes me take a step back and realize how incredibly far the science of genetics has come. As of May 1, 2007, testing for a gene therapy treatment has begun that may lead to a cure for a type of blindness in humans called Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA). LCA is described as “a type of inherited childhood blindness caused by a single abnormal gene [which] prevents the retina from detecting light properly, resulting in progressive deterioration and severely impaired eyesight.” Clinical testing in humans comes as a result of the amazing success of the treatment in dogs born with LCA. After treatment the dogs recovered enough sight to successfully navigate an obstacle course!

So, how does gene therapy work? As we all know by now, proteins and enzymes are the major players in every biological process occurring in our body. Genes are the code for creating these proteins, and when a certain gene is mutated or lacking, a genetic disorder can result. Specifically, LCA results from mutations in the RPE65 gene which codes for a protein needed by retinal cells in order to respond to light.

Gene therapy relies on the tricky nature of the virus. Viruses are capable of inserting their genome into the genome of the host which they are infecting. Scientists are able to modify the virus, (or “vector” when used in this capacity) removing harmful disease causing genes and replacing them with therapeutic genes. The virus can then be introduced to target cells where they infect and insert the desired gene. In the case of LCA, an adeno-associated virus is modified to carry the RPE65 gene. The vector is then injected through small incisions in the eye which allow access to the surface of the retina. Here the retinal cells can incorporate the viral genome into their own and begin producing the lacking protein.

The success of this treatment in humans is still unknown as trials are still in the works, but based on the success of the treatment in dogs, I think it is safe to get a little excited about the prospects of this therapy!

Sources:

http://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL016653620070501?pageNumber=1&sp=true

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.shtml

http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?4&sci

http://www.physorg.com/news114716169.html

Image courtesy of :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Eye_iris.jpg

H5N1: Avian Bird Flu, are we prepared for a pandemic?

2007-11-27T20:25:00.000-08:00

A few weeks ago on the BBC they showed a segment on a recent out break of the H5N1 strain of Avian Bird Flu, which had become recently prevalent in turkeys in the UK. It was noticed due to swelling of the turkeys heads' and a blue discoloration on the neck. A 3km danger zone and 10km surveillance zone was set up. The farmers and Food Standard Agency are not otherwise worried about this outbreak because it is not believed to be easily transferred to humans, unless one comes into close contact with the turkey itself. They are taking precaution by keeping the believed unaffected turkeys inside and kept a close watch on for symptoms. However, they may be over looking fecal matter and saliva of the turkeys, which can get into irrigation systems and fertilizers. Also, the virus is easily and quickly transferred from human to human. So, as soon as one person becomes infected it could mean the beginning of a pandemic. The situation could be prevented if it was immediately addressed and the person was put in isolation. The Food Standard Agency does not seem to be too concerned and are just telling people to “cook their meat well.” This could be in an attempt to protect the turkey farmers from plummeting sales as Christmas season approaches.

While Food Standard Agency is saying this Avian Flu outbreak is nothing to be worried about Britain is doubling their antiviral medicine in preparation for a pandemic, stalk piling their resources of Tamiflu. Tamiflu is a “key defence against pandemic flu in the weeks it would to take to develop a vaccine against the culprit virus (BBC Health, Mr. Johnson).” It is an antiviral drug which reduces the length and intensity of the illness. Some scientists believe that the possible flu pandemic could be caused by the bird flu, which has been prevalent in the past months in some regions of the UK. If only a few people do contract the virus it can spread quickly and also mutates at a very high rate, making it difficult to trigger the “culprit virus.” Unfortunately our current influenza vaccination does not protect against the H5N1 stain. It protects against H1N1, H3N2 and B influenza strains. However, each year the shot immunizes against different strains, which could give you a little extra boost in immunity against other strains which may become present. This is a bit of a shot in the dark but may help out when life threatening strains are introduced into the human population. A vaccination for H5N1 is being tested at the moment but is not ready to be available to the public. It is a scary to think that a flu pandemic could occur but thankfully there has not been many human cases thus far. Giving the science community time to develop vaccinations and other modes of protection and cures encase this pandemic does reach us. I think the UK has the right idea in stock piling their resources even if they are not sure the virus will affect their communities.

Sources:
http://pediatrics.about.com/od/weeklyquestion/a/05_bird_flu.htm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7091701.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7107097.stm
http://www.abc.net.au/sa/stories/m832294.jpg

Is there an MRSA epidemic on our hands?

2007-11-27T19:53:00.000-08:00

http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/ar_mrsa_ca_posters.html

Honestly no pun intended; however, a very interesting segment of 60 Minutes on CBS that was recently broadcasted: “Controlling the Superbug” sure caught my attention. I also believe that the heart of this discussion further emphasizes our previous in class epidemiology assignment. Only now the focus is not only on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections that occur more exclusively in hospital and healthcare settings, nursing homes and dialysis centers, or in those individuals that are elderly or immunocompromised. Becoming more prevalent are acquired infections in otherwise healthy people and young students, including athletes, which are typically signified as the epitome of health. These infections are known as community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and are cause for great concern. 60 Minutes correspondent Lesley Stahl reported on an increasing number of outbreaks. One such case, “Mt. Lebanon High School in Pennsylvania has been hit hard: 13 members of its football team, the Blue Devils, came down with MRSA infections this year” (Stahl 1). Further adding to the problem, “parents are understandably frantic and want to know what causes it, and how to protect against it. Problem is: there aren't many answers” (Stahl 1). Top that off with “Everyone agrees that this is an epidemic. And not only is it an epidemic. But, it's an epidemic of our times. It's here in huge numbers," says Dr. Robert Daum, an infectious disease pediatrician at the University of Chicago Medical Center (Stahl 1), and voila: a recipe for panic stricken people who live in a society driven by fear and misinformation or worse, lack of information, reacting to the emergence of a serious problem.

Behold, the proclamation of a witch-hunt or modern day lynching on “the cockroach of bacteria” (AP 1). So now we have a mob gathering their weapons with a “shoot first and ask questions later” mentality. Case in point: "I understand that one parent wanted you to put all the kids on an antibiotic, Bactrim, as a preventative," (Stahl 3). Perfect. Why don’t we add some more selective pressure and further test Darwin’s theories? Is this not part of the reason that our society is in such a predicament in the first place? How about what will happen when the mob runs out of “silver bullets”? One of the most serious threats to public health on a global scale is the conjugation of drug-resistant pathogens. New strains known as meticillin-resistant (formerly methicillin-resistant) MRSA have developed resistance to the antibiotic used as the last line of defense, giving way to new strains of vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) and enterococci (VRE) (Willey, et al).

http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/08/60minutes/main3474157.shtml

It is becoming increasingly more apparent that the general public requires some type of authority or regulating body to intervene when such circumstances arise and foresight is required. The high school at Mt. Lebanon quite appropriately enlisted Dr. Bruce Dixon, director of the public health department for Allegheny county, otherwise absolute chaos might have ensued. Even still, parents in dozens of school districts had demanded that schools be shut down, classrooms sterilized, and rooms fumigated (Stahl 3). According to Dixon, “They thought that the field was contaminated. There were people that wanted the field replaced. There were people who wanted the field somehow sterilized… I'm concerned that we have schools that are spending inordinate amounts of money trying to sterilize the school. As soon as the students and the faculty return, the school is no longer sterile" (Stahl 3). Needless to say, the football team has new rules about personal hygiene and the players may actually now become “hand washers” (Stahl 4). It then occurred to me that we also have international initiatives to prevent the spread of infectious disease in many third world nations, by providing the most basic of necessities, developing infrastructures for fresh, clean, running water and teaching hygiene to children. Julie Gerberding head of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, held a CDC staph awareness poster and stressed prevention largely by common sense hygiene, “Soap and water is the cheapest intervention we have, and it's one of the most effective” (AP 1) while testifying on Capitol Hill in Washington over the recent headlines. Nevertheless, there are some authoritative figures that have a different perspective. "To think we control community MRSA epidemics by asking people to wash their hands is foolish. I'm not gonna sit here and say washing your hands is bad. Because it's wonderful. But, it's not going to control the community MRSA epidemic," said Dr. Daum (Stahl 4).

I strongly support community education projects which address the problems related to antibiotic resistance as they promote knowledge and awareness to a diverse audience, and may even dispel some common myths regarding bacteria and viruses. For example: “a survey done in February 2000 by the National Information Program on Antibiotics indicates that 54 per cent of adults in Canada believe antibiotics are effective against viruses” (Blondel-Hill MD, FRCP, et al). One such program, Do Bugs Need Drugs?® is a cooperative effort in Alberta and British Columbia, funded for provincial implementation in B.C. by the Ministry of Health, Pharmacare Division. In fact this organization’s website has specialized sections ranging from the general public to more specific demographic targets, such as parents, teachers, kids, daycares, health care, occupational health, and assisted living professionals. Some of the information is even available in ten other languages.

It is apparent that cooperation on all fronts is not only desirable, but is mandatory for such efforts to be successful. We can only hope that the prospective consequences of an epidemic are enough incentive for individuals to adopt these responsibilities themselves, transforming such a simple chore as personal hygiene into a simple habit. I do not pretend to have all of the answers, yet I can personally confirm antibiotic misuse in our own community when I was misdiagnosed with bacterial pneumonia last spring. This is a common occurrence. Antibiotics are being appallingly overused, mostly for respiratory tract infections. Many are being prescribed inaccurately, for a multitude of other symptoms. I am quite sure that many of us have similar experiences. As an aspiring medical scientist, I only respectfully offer that there is no substitution for intelligent preventative measures combined with proactive education to promote knowledge and awareness. So please, for your own personal health as well as for others, do your part and remember to wash your hands!

Resources:

Stahl, Lesley, 60 Minutes. (Nov. 11, 2007). CBS News.
<http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/08/60minutes/main3474157.shtml>.
Accessed November 12, 2007.

Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
<http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/ar_mrsa_ca.html>.

Accessed November 12, 2007.

Associated Press. (Nov. 7, 2007). CBS News.
<http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/07/health/main3468069.shtml>.

Accessed November 12, 2007.

Willey, Joanne M, et al, “Prescott, Harley, and Klein’s Microbiology”, Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008, pp. 849-851.

Blondel-Hill MD, FRCP, Edith, et al. Do Bugs Need Drugs?®.
<http://www.dobugsneeddrugs.org/index.html>.

Accessed November 23, 2007.

TB’s Fighting Back!!

2007-11-26T22:24:00.000-08:00

Tuberculosis… we’ve all heard of it. Many have thought it may have been cured, but it has made a comeback into today’s health headlines. Tuberculosis is a respiratory bacterial infection, but can also sometimes attack the central nervous system among other areas of the body. The bacterium that causes tuberculosis is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is bacillus in morphology and tests weakly positive in a Gram stain. It is highly infective as it only needs a cough or a sneeze from an infected person to transmit the bacterium. After the discovery of successful antibiotics, the number of incidences of being diagnosed with Tuberculosis dropped dramatically. Consistent use of antibiotics, in combination with an unsuccessful eradication program has caused new strains of Tuberculosis to emerge. A recent program by the World Health Organization to halt Tuberculosis has resulted in an “extensively” resistant strain to antibiotics.

Researchers tracked the developing drug resistance of one particular strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis over 12 years. They found that at the time of the 2001 adoption of the DOT+ strategy for multi-drug resistant strains, the strain was already resistant to one or more of the drugs mandated by that strategy, thus allowing the strain to survive and develop resistance to additional drugs.

The continued use of antibiotics is not the answer to defeating the disease. The development of new treatment strategies may be what would be required to be able to continually battle the emergence of the now drug resistant stains of tuberculosis. The “discovery of copper-repressing protein in bacterium” may be a new strategy to defeat this disease.

Scientists have known that when macrophages - the host's immune cells - swallow an invading bacterium, they dump excessive amounts of copper onto the invader in an effort to kill it. While all cells need copper to function, too much of the metal ion causes cell death.

"But the invaders fight back with their own defense," says Adel Talaat, a microbiologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine. "They block the excess copper."

As this may hopefully be a new way to fight bacterial infections, of not only tuberculosis, the question now is how to trick the bacterium to forgo the mechanisms that prevent excessive uptake of copper.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071022120253.htm

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060915202534.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/12/061214084423.htm

Image Sources:

http://medicineworld.org/images/blogs/mycobacterium-tuberculosis-299290.jpg

Appendix Isn’t Totally Useless

2007-11-26T12:43:00.000-08:00

For quite some time now scientists have believed that the appendix has no apparent function since it cannot be removed without causing any noticeable effects to the person who has had it removed.

The appendix is a small finger-like projection connected to the cecum. On average the appendix is about 10 cm in length, but can vary from 2 cm-20 cm. It is found in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen, and is corresponds with a point on the surface know as McBurney’s Point. Before now the appendix has been said to be just a vestigial structure, meaning that it has no known purpose.

Recent studies at Duke University Medical Center that there are beneficial bacteria in the appendix that can aid digestion can ride out a bout of diarrhoea that completely evacuates the intestines and afterwards repopulate the gut. The appendix makes a good home for bacteria because they can remain their undisturbed until they are need.

There are immune cells found in the appendix and with this new research has lead researchers to believe that the immune system cells in the appendix are there not to destroy but to protect these potentially important bacteria from harm.

There is a biofilm that is found on the inside of the bowels consists of microbes, mucous and immune system molecules that are able to live together on the lining of the intestine. The Immune molecules are there to protect and nourish the “good” bacteria that are living in these colonies. More importantly these biofilms are the most pronounced in the appendix and become less prevalent as you move away from it. By allowing the "good" bacteria to grow we are preventing "bad" bacteria from growing in their place, thus protecting us from potentially harmful diseases and illnesses.

The function of the appendix might be more visible if it wasn’t for modern health care and sanitation. In diseases that cause severe diarrhoea this can be very beneficial. Due to the position of the appendix it is very difficult for anything to enter it, so when the entire contents of the bowels are removed, including the biofilm, the bacteria are safe from harm. They are now able to emerge from the appendix and repopulate the get before any “bad” bacteria has a chance to take over. However with the advances in modern health care and sanitation practices these “good” bacteria may have very little effect on our health, but in countries where diseases like these are a serious problem because their medical system isn’t a good as ours, this bacteria may be very important.

One possible for the reason of the high occurrence of appendicitis in industrialized societies may be because of what scientists call the “hygiene hypothesis” which states that “people in "hygienic" societies have higher rates of allergy and perhaps autoimmune disease because they -- and hence their immune systems -- have not been as challenged during everyday life by the host of parasites or other disease-causing organisms commonly found in the environment. So when these immune systems are challenged, they can over-react.” This over-reactivity of the immune system could lead to the inflammation of the appendix that has been associated with appendicitis. This could lead to the obstruction of the intestines that causes acute appendicitis, in which case the appendix needs to be removed.

References:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071008102334.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiform_appendix

Image From:

http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/vestiges/vermiform_appendix.jpg

Plaque: a biofilm formation

2007-11-25T10:42:00.000-08:00

One of the most uncomplicated things to do besides washing your hands, is brushing your teeth. Saliva in your mouth keeps plaque from forming on your teeth but only for a short time. The enamel on your teeth absorb certain glycoprotein’s that are acidic to form this protective layer called an acquired enamel pellicle. This pellicle has a negative charge which repels most bacteria in the mouth because they are also negatively charged. This defence breaks down with the formation of dental plaque. Some gram positive bacteria such as Streptococcus gordonii, S. oralis, and S. mitis can attach to the pellicle and start colonization. These initial bacteria can coat the pellicle so that other bacteria normally not able to attach, can now attach to these bacteria that initially colonized the teeth. All these cells divide and grow to increase colony strength.

A matrix can now form in between the layers caused by the bacteria and dietary sucrose. Certain bacteria feed off of the dietary sucrose to produce "additional sticky microbial substances", which is where the other bacteria get their energy from. As this matrix of bacteria we call plaque thickens it can become more gram negative from all the other bacteria that is in the plaque. Because of the plaque the there is an absence of oxygen on the surface of the tooth which can lead to the growth of strict anaerobic bacteria, so the plaque can form between teeth. This formation of plaque can start to produce acids from the sucrose, that now cannot be neutralized, because the saliva cannot penetrate the biofilm. The acids can start to demineralise the teeth leading to tooth decay. It can happen fast, within days the biofilm formation can happen if you don’t brush or floss properly. So the thing is people need to brush, floss, and go to the dentist regularly because once this plaque forms only a trip to the dentist can get rid of it.

References:

Prescott, Harley, & Klein's Microbiology Seventh Edition (page 991)

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objID=DHY202

http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk/OROFACE/PAGES/micro/micro2.html

http://www.communityhealth.dhhs.state.nc.us/dental/ed_resources/What_Is_Plaque.pdf

When Phages Attack: The War Against the Bacteria

2007-11-25T02:06:00.001-08:00

Back in my high school days and my serious interests in micro-organisms, I pondered to myself, why don’t scientists modify bacteriophages to specifically target pathogenic bacteria. As it is, scientists today have increasingly researched this possibility as an alternative to conventional drug therapies. The use of bacteriophages to treat bacterial infection is called bacteriophage (or phage) therapy.

Bacteriophages have a high affinity towards specific receptor proteins bound on the surfaces of bacteria. This specificity allows the theoretical use of these viruses as treatment alternatives against pathogenic bacteria against human, animals, and even plants. The mechanism behind phage therapy is that the bacteria will lysis upon invasion of the bacteriophage, thus curing the disease. Because bacteriophages have a high specificity towards a specific type of bacteria, they would make excellent use since the phages would not damage other cells, unlike conventional drug therapies.

One of the issues dealing with conventional drug therapies is the penetration of biofilms. Drugs have a difficulty in being effective in the presence of a biofilm. Phage therapy doesn’t have this issue since the phages could bypass the biofilm and destroy the bacteria.

In drug therapies, bacteria can evolve to develop resistances against drugs, as in the case with MRSA. With phage therapy, the evolution of resistance to the phages theoretically should be balanced out with the evolution of the phage to continued infection of the bacteria. One study showed promising results in the use of phage therapy.

In Britain, H. W. Smith and M. B. Huggins (1982, 1983) carried out a series of studies on use of phages in systemic E. coli infections in mice and then in diarrheal disease in young calves. For example, they found that injecting 10⁶ colony-forming units of a particular pathogenic strain intramuscularly killed 10/10 of the mice, but none died if they simultaneously injected 10⁴ plaque-forming units of a phage selected against the K1 capsule antigen of that bacterial strain. This phage treatment was more effective than using such antibiotics as tetracycline, streptomycin, ampicillin or trimethoprim/sulfafurazole. Furthermore, the resistant bacteria that emerged had lost their capsule and were far less virulent.

Another possibility for phage therapy is to be used in conjunction with conventional drug therapies. Since some bacteriophages are lysogenic, these phages are able to combine their genetic material with the bacterial cell’s DNA. This insertion of genetic material may be able to code for proteins and enzymes that could weaken the bacteria’s defenses. After the weakening of the defense mechanism, conventional drug therapies would then destroy the bacteria as they normally would.

With the new research into phage therapy and the efforts put into modifications of genes, I leave you with this question. Would it not be possible to manufacture specific bacteriophages to target any bacteria in the near future?

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_therapy

http://www.biotechjournal.com/Journal/feb2003/Article1text.htm

http://academic.evergreen.edu/projects/phage/phagetherapy/phagetherapy.htm

Microogranisms Saving the World

2007-11-23T17:57:00.000-08:00

Microbiology appears in our daily lives everywhere, but the most valuable area that it is developing in is industrial biotechnology. Our mother-earth is in crisis; the amount of green house emissions is growing into an uncontrollable state and the amount of un-recyclable waste thrown away is nerve wracking. The human population consumes and consumes to a degree that in a very short time we will be left with no natural resources and a heavily polluted planet. The industrial biotechnology industry is working hard with combined efforts from nanotechnologists to find a cure to our petrochemical hungry lives.

Biotechnologists have devised a method to change foreign produced petroleum into domestically produced bio-fuels. This process began as a very clunky, slow and expensive procedure; however, it is now paving the way as a new inexpensive and environmentally friendly approach to power our vehicles. The idea for a new reusable transportation fuel was introduce with the notion that carbon from sugars in cellulose walls would be used instead of carbon from dinosaur fossils. A solution in using advanced enzymatic systems to break down the carbon skeletons from cellulosic biomass, such as crop residues, to sugars that feed yeast was introduced. The yeast produces ethanol as a metabolic product which in turn is the fuel that feeds cars. There are a couple of problems posed with this solution unfortunately. The first being, scientists needed to make it more economically viable by alternately using corn stovers or corn stocks (complex sugars) instead of corn (simple sugar) as a lower cost source. As well, technicians needed enzymes that would function in the high temperatures required for faster production of sugars. The first answer was brought with the discovery of Trichoderma reesei, a common soil fungus, that can manufacture a large amount of enzymes that break down cellulose. Like any plant enzyme, it had a natural tendency to denature, change shape, when exposed to extreme temperatures commanding it nonfunctional. So, scientists started to collect extremophiles, deep ocean micro-organisms called diatoms, which could function at these high temperatures. Diatoms build very elaborate silicon structures with intricate machinery to protect themselves in extreme environments. This posed a problem to scientists wanting to reproduce them by synthetic means. Nano-technicians stepped in and applied a new level of understanding to make reproduction feasible. Soon after, it didn’t take long for scientist to manipulate T. reesei to take the nature of diatoms. A new microbe was constructed that could withstand these high temperatures and cleave cellulose into individual sugars freeing them for ethanol production by yeast. Odd to think that one gallon of this cellulosic ethanol can replace three gallons of imported oil, which powers our motor vehicles, not at the sympathy of earth, but offered in safe emissions.

References:

http://www.bio.org/ind/

http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/wang.htm

http://www.livescience.com/animals/050207_extremophiles.html

Image from:

http://www.livescience.com/animals/050207_extremophiles.html

How Far Down Does The Rabbit Hole Go?

2007-11-23T13:01:00.000-08:00

There are a lot of vaccines present in the world today. But how many are really beneficial to us and, how many really provide what they advertise? Overall, the general public consensus on receiving a vaccination is favorable. Most of the time getting vaccinated is a good idea because it slows the development of viruses. But would you change your mind if you knew a little more about certain types of vaccines, Gardasil in particular?

First of all, lets address what Gardasil “really” prevents? This is a generic vaccination for four strains of viral oncogenes, Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), which causes cervical cancer. The vaccination covers only two of the major strains or causative oncogenes, 16 and 18. It also incorporates two minor strains of genital warts that could lead to HPV, 6 and 11. But there are over 100’s of known forms of HPV present that the vaccine does not cover. Scientists decided to vaccinate against these two prominent strains because they are the cause of 70% of cervical cancer. So where did the other 30% go? What happens if 16 and 18 evolve their glycoprotein receptors as a resistance to the new drug because it is under pressure? The vaccine is then rendered useless. Who knows how long this morphology will take because, the oncogenes have never been under this type of stress before. Then what? We discover another vaccine and another until we form a superbug. (Refer to Rochelle’s Blog posting, “Ear Infections Caused by Superbug”) Why bother if our bodies rid HPV naturally? Some women can contracted HPV and, cleared it without even knowing it because our bodies naturally clear it within two years with no symptoms. Which leads me to my next point, Gardasil will not prevent against previously contracted a strain of HPV. Have you ladies had a pap smear recently to know? Another downer to this vaccine is that there is also a 5-2% chance that Gardasil is not effective depending on the cancer that could develop; this is a very small chance but a chance none the less. My final point is that there is an indefinite time line as to how long the vaccine will be effective for. So who really knows when the vaccine will stop working? What is known, repeated inoculations over the course of 5 years for women within a small select age range from 9-26 are needed to make it effective. These are all facts that your doctor might already be able to tell you but, here is something that he/she might not know. All of these tests and stats have been conducted by Gardasil, the FDA has approved it. But the government or other authorities have not preformed their own separate testing yet. I do not doubt that Gradasil’s scientist know what they are doing but, my question is has the data been altered in some way? The only reason why I question this is because Merck, scientist that made Gardasil, produced an earlier product called Vioxx. Vioxx was supposed to reduce pain and help arthritis; however, it was taken off selves five years later because it was the cause of severe heart attacks and strokes. Merck hid the high risk of Vioxx from patients and doctors until the time of recall despite the warning from the US FDA about the marketing of Vioxx. So let me ask you this… Are you really covered?

I am sure everyone has seen the commercial that wants to make you believe that you are covered against cervical cancer. The commercial makes me think that they are more after our money than anything because it withholds very critical information about Gardasil. Gardasil even hands out free bags that contain some chocolate, fisherman’s friend, door hanger, condoms and coupon for Homesense but, there were no pamphlets that give any information about their product. Does Gardasil have something to hide this time?

What does all this have to do with Microbiology? HPV contains double stranded, circular DNA that codes for 12 genes. Two of these genes encode for proteins that make up the capsule (protein shell of virion), L1 and L2. Two code for the proteins E6 and E7 which disrupt the normal host cell cycle. The rest of the HPV genes mechanisms are unknown. In fact most of the HPV cycle is unknown because it is hard to grow viable colonies in lab. Although, studies have shown that the E6 and E7 protein translated by the host cell binds and degrade the tumor suppressor genes p53 and retinoblastoma. These tumor suppressor genes are responsible for maintaining the degree of growth and responding to growth ligands. Thus if these tumor suppressor genes are not functional it could result in the cell mutation and over growth of cells which could lead to cancer.

References:

http://www.fda.gov/cder/Offices/OODP/whatsnew/gardasil.htm

http://iafn.org/assembly/KMorgan%20Merck%20The%20Early%20and%20Long-Term%20Benefits%20of%20Preventing%20Low-Risk.pdf

http://www.bccdc.org/content.php?item=425

http://www.stanford.edu/group/virus/papova/HPV.html

http://www.adrworks.com/

Image from:

http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/store/add.php?iid=8829

Bovine Batteries,Cows as a source of electriciy?

2007-11-17T23:02:00.000-08:00

Now I have heard everything! But I wasn't surprised to find that bacteria made this crazy concept possible. Naturally occurring bacteria in the cow's rumen, the first of the chambers in a cows stomach where microbial fermentation takes place,are to thank. These bacteria feed on cellulose which is converted into carbon dioxide, releasing electrons. A microbial fuel cell (MFC) generates electricity by acting as the electron acceptor in the bacterial metabolic process in an anaerobic environment.

Here is the basic principal of a MFC. There are two compartments that are separated by a thin membrane made of special material to allow the passage of protons. The bacteria (the rumen fluid) and substrate (the cellulose), are place in one compartment with a graphite rod. This is the anode. As the bacteria metabolises the cellulose the process releases electrons that move through the anode to the cathode compartment through a wire with a resistor. The movement of protons together with the flow of electrons across the wire creates an electrical current.

It takes two of the newest cells to produce enough electricity to recharge a AA battery. That doesn't seem like much now, but considering that cellulose is the most abundant resource on the planet this technology has promising possibilities for clean energy. And cellulose is just one type of organic matter that bacteria can convert to electricity, take for instance human waste.

Researches at Pennsylvania State University have build a microbial fuel cells that runs off of human waste water. Waste water is passed through a plastic tube that contains a graphite rod that acts as the anode and a home for the bacteria. As the bacteria feed on the waste they produce electrons that travel up the anode through wire to a cathode, producing an electrical current. The only thing is you have to keep the bacteria fed. Considering the food source, that shouldn't be a problem! This amazing device uses bacteria to treat waste water while producing energy. Could you image a sewage treatment plant that powered itself, a plant that cleans our water and powers our homes!

Refrences:

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0301_040302_sewagepower.html

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070821143612.htm

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0909_050909_cowbattery_2.html

http://www.microbialfuelcell.org/

New Laser Technology

2007-11-17T11:37:00.000-08:00

Ultra-violet light is able to destroy micro organisms because of its low wave-length (10-400 nm) and high energy. The UV radiation is extremely harmful to cells because it causes thymine dimers to form in the DNA. The DNA replication mechanisms are unable to repair the dimers, this causes DNA replication to halt and then the cell enters apoptosis.

Traditional laser treatments are unable to discriminate between foreign cells and human cells. When this treatments are used not only destroy the virus or bacteria but human cells as well. The side effects of this kind of treatment include skin aging, damage to the DNA of human cells, and may also cause skin cancer. Another problem with this type of treatment is that it is not 100% effective.

There has been a recent discovery from the Arizona State University in which a laser that emits infrared pulses is able to discriminate between human and problem microorganism cells. This technology uses Femtosecond laser pulses, and through a process called Impulsive Stimulated Raman Scattering (ISRS), produces lethal vibrations in the protein coat of microorganisms, thereby destroying them. This laser is similar to the principles that work when high pitched noises shatter glass.

With this new technology the Femtosecond laser pulses use a process called impulsive Stimulated Raman Scattering which produced vibration in the protein coat of micro-organisms which destroys the viruses and bacteria without causing any damage to human cells. Only the bacterial or viral cells are destroyed because the protein coat of their cells are very different from the protein coat of human cells. However when selecting the wavelength and pulses of the laser you need to be careful to select one that will only damage/destroy the viral or bacterial cells and not the human cells as well. Otherwise you will still have similar problems that were caused by the UV laser radiation.

This new technology has many different applications. It can be used in hospitals to disinfect blood supplies as well as other bio materials. This would be very beneficial in a hospital setting because it would make sure that bio materials would be fully sterilized without have to worry about destroying the beneficial cells. Another hospital application would be to use it on infections such as MRSA. This technology can also be used for the treatment of blood-borne illnesses such as AIDS and hepatitis.

References:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071101084950.htm
http://www.plasmetic.com/skin/lasers/new-laser-technique-kills-viruses-without-touching-human-cells.html
Prescott, Harley, & Klein's Microbiology Seventh Edition (Pg 142)

Ear Infections, what you should know...

2007-11-12T10:15:00.000-08:00

A new super bug had been discovered in kids, ear infections that resist all antibiotics allowed for children. As we have feared for sometime now bacteria are evolving and becoming more and more resistant to antibiotics.

This newly found resistant bug is Streptococcus pneumoniae, it causes sever ear infections in children and infants. The only antibiotics that have been found to treat the bacteria cause sever joint problems in the kids who have taken them. Other treatments available for children include surgery and extremely aggressive therapy.

The Streptococcus Pneumonia if left untreated can cause much more serious problems such as pneumonia, blood stream infections, and meningitis.

“We need to alert doctors across North America that the possibility exists for a super bug,” says Dr. Michael Pichicher, a Microbiology and Immunology professor at the University of Rochester.

Sadly the bug has already caused serious problems. One child has lost all hearing due to the infection; the bug was not caught early enough and should have been treated sooner. Now that we are aware of the new pathogen we need to learn to recognize and test for the mutated infection earlier. We also need to work on developing a new antibiotic safe for the use of children to kill the ear infection.

Source: Canwest News Services
Alberni Valley Times (Wed Oct 17/07)
static.howstuffworks.com/

HPV and cervical cancer.

2007-11-11T15:59:00.000-08:00

HPV, or human papillomavirus has been making the news and been a hot topic of controversy lately. Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among women world wide and HPV infections are present in 100% of all cervical cancer patients, coincidence? Definitely not!

HPV is the most commonly transmitted infection in the United States and over half of all sexually active American are infected at some time in their lives. There are usually no symptoms so passing it to someone else without even knowing it is fairly easy, it requires only skin on skin contact to be transmitted. I am going to assume that the stats are pretty close for Canadians as well. Not so scary considering that most HPV infections will come and go without ever causing any symptoms, our ever amazing immune systems taking care of the virus before it causes any damage. But (of course there is a but), of the 37 types of HPV that are spread through sexual contact, there are about 19 "high risk"types that can develop into cervical cancer.
(ThinPrep Pap smear with group of normal cervical cells on left and HPV-infected cells on right. The HPV-infected cells show features typical of koilocytes: enlarged (x2 or x3) nuclei and hyperchromasia)

The virus does so by producing the proteins E6 and E7 which effectively inactivates or turns off the P53 gene. Why does this matter so much? The P53 gene is a tumor suppressor gene, a transcription factor that regulate the cycle and cell apoptosis. Without it there is excessive cell division that leads to tumors and cancer.

But alas, unlike other forms of cancer there is a vaccine. Gardasil and Cervarix are two types of vaccines that work against type 16 and 18 of the virus by getting the body to produce virus-neutralizing antibodies that will prevent initial infections. That's right, just like the flu shot! Hallow virus-like particles are produces from recombinant HVP coat proteins. What? Well, DNA from the viral protein coat are inserted into another organisms genome, such as the plasmids of bacteria. This DNA is expressed and a virus-like particle is assembled that has no viral DNA and therefore cannot cause infection. This initial vaccines is expected to last for 4.5 years with repeated inoculations later.

So we have a preventative measure, but what if you already have cervical cancer or cannot get the vaccines? Like any other form of cancer early detection is the key. Regular Pap smears and visits to your doctor are a must. Edward Yeung an Iowa State University professor has developed a method of detecting a single HPV molecule. The current test being used requires 10 to 50 viral molecules. This new technology, which is not in use yet, creates chemical reagents that recognize the genetic sequence of HPV. The reagents label the genome by florescence, which are lite when passed through a laser. "Yeung said single molecule detection of the virus could help women and families decide to get vaccinated. He said vaccines administered after such early detection could still have time to stop the virus."

Preventative measures and early detection, is cervical cancer going the way of Polio and the dinosaurs? Hopefully with education and common sense we can see a decline in the women who suffer from what now seem to be a preventable disease.

Refrences:

http://www.fhcrc.org/about/pubs/center_news/2005/nov17/sart5.html

www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=32

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P53

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPV=vaccine

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071030164855.htm

Image from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Images:ThinPrep_Pap_smear=HPV.jpeg

Global Warming and Bacteria

2007-11-09T14:27:00.000-08:00

Global warming and bacteria

As the world gets warmer everyday and we are trying to decrease the use of any substances that produce greenhouse gases (fossil fuels), the CO2 levels keep increasing. However, the statistics and numbers of CO2 levels are based in the production of it in the industry (fabrics, cars, coal, etc). We have forgotten the most abundant form of life in earth; Bacteria. So how has Bacteria been affected by global warming? And what is the role of bacteria in global warming?

Most of the carbon in the world is storage in large layers of ice in the Arctic pole; they have been there for long periods of time. However, the increasing temperatures are melting the Arctic ring. As we know by now studies of the soil in the Arctic have shown us there are microorganisms living in it. These bacteria can be classified as Psychrophile (as cold temperatures are permanent). Some of these Bacteria have lived in endospores for many years; let’s remind ourselves that endospores can protect bacteria against extreme conditions i.e. freezing temperatures. As the world gets warmer these bacteria are breaking down long-term stores of carbon; that is, they are getting carbon sources from the Arctic soil as source of energy and producing CO2 as a by-product. This increasing of CO2 emissions would increase the effects of global warming. Another aspect is that Global warming is increasing the rate in which bacteria are decomposing death matter (leafs, animals) producing CO2. This is a problem because there is no longer a balance between the production of CO2 by decomposition and the absorbance of this green house gas by plants.

So what else can we expected from global warming? Well, the melting of the Arctic layer is bringing old bacteria and viruses back to life. These new populations could potentially be infections organism we thought were gone or be new organism which could cause epidemics never seen before. The only thing left to say is that we need to keep in mind that our actions are not just affecting the human race; it is also affecting Mother Nature. Bacteria and viruses would get their sources to keep living, and they will not care going through us to succeed. Hopefully we are not too late to make a big difference to make our future better.

New Scientist; 7/9/2005, Vol. 187 Issue 2507, p45-45, 1/2p, 1c

http://www.physorg.com/news4009.html

http://www.innovations-report.de/html/berichte/umwelt_naturschutz/bericht-44050.html

http://www.postcarbon.org/node/2366

Ear Infections caused by Superbug: "It all starts with the Ear"

2007-11-08T21:06:00.000-08:00

A recent discovery has shown that there is a strain of bacteria causing chronic ear infections in children. It was discovered after common ear infection antibiotics failed to heal infections, which lead to an ear-tap and examination of the fluid. Tests on the fluid showed this "superbug" was being caused by strain 19A, and was found treatable using an adult antibiotic called levofloxacin, Levaquin (which the use of it has not been proven safe for children yet). However, there is a much bigger underlying issue at hand: over-prescribing of antibiotics leading to untreatable strains of bacteria, causing ear infections, pneumonia, meningitis, blood infections, etc... These conditions can lead to hearing loss, brain damage, and even death. It seems many doctors do not perform an ear tap to determine the type of bacteria causing the ear infection. They instead prescribe one of the many known antibiotics used to heal ear infections in children, without knowing if the infection will heal on its own or if the particular strain causing the infection is resistant to the antibiotic prescribed. This leads to using antibiotics when unnecessary, or using more types of antibiotics than necessary. This in turn builds antibiotic resistance. If the strain 19A becomes predominant in causing ear infections, than the use of the levofloxaxin, Levoquin antibiotic will increase, and pretty soon immunity to that will develop and there will be no approved treatment for ear infections, and overall strain 19A. The reality of strain 19A as a "superbug" will become inevitable, and with the way society is today, seemingly unavoidable.
Most ear infections are caused by Acute Otitis, which usually comes from the bacteria S. Pneumonia. S.Pneumonia is also known to cause pneumonia and meningitis. Wyeth's Prevnan is a vaccine recommended for children under two to help prevent pneumonia. S. Pneumonia works by coating itself in a 90 variation sugar capsule that infects human cells by mimicking human cell coatings. 7 of the most common variations that cause infection are prevented by Prevnan.
This, and the overuse of antibiotics, made room for the other less common capsule variations (like strain 19A) to prevail. A new vaccine to cover more strains of S. Pneumonia is expected to come to market by 2009.
Some better advice: Be more cautious about "over-dosing" on antibiotics; don't get treated for every little infection......after all we do have an immune system, and metaphorically speaking "If you don't use it, you lose it!"

References:
University of Rochester Medical Center (2007, October 17). Ear Infection Superbug Discovered To Be Resistant To All Pediatric Antibiotics. ScienceDaily. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071016160615.htm

Marchione, Marilyn (2007, September 17). Pneumonia Vaccine May Facilitate 'Superbug' Ear Infections. Associated Press: C Health. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from http://chealth.canoe.ca

Gordon, Serena (2007, October 16). Ear Infections Linked to Drug-Resistant 'Superbug'. HealthDay News. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from http://www.healthday.com

Image location:
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/how-to-deal-with-middle-ear-infection-1.jpg

Viruses and Osteosarcoma

2007-11-07T22:04:00.000-08:00

Cancer is an illness that in some way or another has affected everyone. It is usually associated with older people who have had time to live their lives. However, there is a cancer that is almost only found in children and teens between the ages of nine and twenty-two, although, it can occur in people of any age. It is most commonly found in the femur, humerus and tibia and arises from osteoblasts (the cells that produce bone and cause it to grow). During the teen years children are going through growth spurts with their cells quickly dividing. Obviously the cause of cancer is not known however, there are possible hypothesises that bring forth a good argument. We know that proto-oncogenes aid in the normal function of the cell cycle and we also know that viruses are capable of disrupting the proto-onogene. In the case of Osteosarcoma a virus could interfere with the proto-onogene causing the inhibition of p53 (a protein that blocks the cell cycle if DNA is damaged). The virus then could begin to control the cell cycle in some way. The mutation causes inability for cells to pass through S phase and the check points, being the perfect precursor for tumour development. Because osteosarcoma most often arises in teenagers experiencing growth spurts, bones are growing at a rapid rate with the mutated cells taking control, being replicated more quickly than they would during other periods of one’s life. This p53 is an important part in the cell cycle which allows our cells to pass through the appropriate check points. When it is inhibited disaster occurs. If only they could figure out a way to block inhibition of this protein or block viruses from inserting into our genome all together. Unfortunately it is hard to keep up with research because viruses change so quickly. Maybe there will never be a cure for virus caused cancers...although, we can hope!

Even though there is not a cure for osteosarcoma or any cancer for that matter research is moving quickly to make mortality rate lower and lower. Osteosarcoma can be treated with vigorous interval treatments of chemotherapy. Because it mostly occurs in younger people their bodies can with stand a higher dosage. Allowing the tumour to reduce significantly in size and proceed on to surgery. If surgery goes well and the tumour reduces in size due to the chemotherapy the affected bone can be replaced with titanium, this form of prosthetic is not noticeable. There is some limited function such as running. But, overall it is a much better alternative than the “old fashioned” prosthetics. Even though there is no complete cure of any cancer, research makes it possible to limit the heart ache that caused by it.

sources:

http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/medical/cancer/cancer_osteosarcoma.html

http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=361354

http://images.google.com/

Twinrix Vaccine

2007-11-07T19:21:00.000-08:00

Twinrix is a vaccine that is used for protection against hepatitis A & B. A number of people had told me that it gave coverage for life. The manufacturer, Glaxo Smith Kline, states that the vaccine provides coverage for about 15 to 20 years. If you are not sure if you have been vaccinated in the past, say at school, or are not certain that you still have coverage, you can go for blood work and get a serology test. This test will tell you if you still have active antibodies against hepatitis A & B.

There are two different dosing schedules that may be used for administering the Twinrix vaccine. The most common dosing schedule is a shot at 0, 1, and 6 months. If you need coverage faster, there is a rapid dose that involoves 4 shots. Rapid schedule is 0, 7, and 21 days followed by a fourth dose at 12 months from the first.

The Twinrix vaccine is used for ages 1 year old and above. There are some common possible side effects including redness, swelling, and pain at the site of injection. Other inconvenient possible side effects are headache, malaise, nausea and fatigue.

WHAT IS HEPATITIS AND HOW COULD I GET INFECTED?

Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver caused by the hepatovirus.

Hepatitis A is contamination by fecal matter. Hygiene and sanitation are the best preventative measures. Wash hands after using the washroom to prevent spreading to others. To protect yourself use clean towels, your own toothbrush that you keep covered, clean utensils and your own personal hygiene products. A common site for picking up Hepatitis A is at a restuarant where an employee did not wash.

Hepatitis B is transferred through blood and body fluids. Unprotected sex, blood transfusion, tattoos, manicures, mother to infant and contaminated needles are all possible ways to contract hepatitis B. Abstinence or latex condoms will greatly reduce the risk of transferring hepatitis B as will proper testing of blood before any form of transfusions, clean needles and clean manicure supplies.

WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS OF HEPATITIS?

Fatigue, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, appetite lose, depression and jaunice may appear 2 to 6 weeks after infection. Some individuals may exhibit no symptoms.

I travel frequently and have been to Puerto Vallarta, Los Cabos, Mazatlan, and Punta Cana. I definitely got the Twinrix vaccine before setting out. Some countries are not as aware of good hygiene practices as you would expect in Canada. I fully support the hepatitis A & B vaccine if you are going to be travelling. Use this connection to the travelsafely site for videos and information before travelling.

http://www.balancedlivingmag.com/2006/March%20-%20April%2006/When%20Parents%20Question%20Vaccination.htm
http://www.istockphoto.com/file_closeup/?id=655514&refnum=402501
http://www.geneesmiddelenrepertorium.nl/076_twinr_eu
http://www.twinrix.ca/en/home/index.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_A

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B

Bye bye biofilm...maybe?

2007-11-04T15:18:00.000-08:00

As we have learned in our microbiology course, the formation of bacterial biofilm is one of the most effective ways of a bacteria to cause an infection in humans. The biofilm is a layer of slime that a colony of bacteria produce to shield themselves from our immune system and from antibiotics. According to a study done by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, 80 percent of infections are caused by the formation of biofilms. If scientists could come up with a way to prevent biofilm formation, it is possible that the number of, and longevity of bacterial infections could be decreased dramatically. Recently, a chemist working at the University of Wisconsin-Madison has begun studies on this subject. However, to understand the techniques of this study properly, a general knowledge of the mechanisms of the generation of a biolfilm is required.

The first step in the creation of a biofilm is when single bacteria attach to their substrate. They do so at first through weak Van der Waals interactions, and then adhere more securely via their attachment structures such as pili. When the accumulation of bacteria is substancial enough, and when the bacteria have anchored sufficiently, the bacteria start acting as a colony and begin to communicate and produce the slime layer, and eventually, the biofilm is created. The first layer of bacteria provide the attachment site for others, and through reproduction, many layers are created and the biofilm mass grows rapidly. One of the most important steps in this process (for the purposes of the study mentioned above) is the communications that lead the colony to begin producing the slime layer, and ultimately the biofilm. The communications occur through a process called quorum sensing.

Quorum sensing is the process in which bacteria control gene expression based on the density of local bacteria. Bacteria have specialized molecules which sense density, and when the density reaches a certain point, the bacteria begin to function as a group, and become a colony which leads to biofilm formation. Quorum sensing is the the focus of the UW chemists studies. Their idea is that if these density sensing molecules can be altered, or tricked, that the formation of colonies would be inhibited, and that the bacteria would continue to exist as single units not acting as a colony. The process of inhibiting the biolfilm formation is called quorum-quenching.

If a successful quorum-quenching drug could be produced, it would greatly benefit the medical community. A quorum-quenching drug, one that does not focus on killing bacteria, would mean that antiobiotics would not have to be the only option for treating bacterial infection. I've had some unpleasant antibiotic experience in the past, and to me, an alternate treatment for bacteria would be a very positive thing. The quorum-quenching drug is still in testing, but hopefully in the near future, this treatment will be available for at least some kids of infections.

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm#_note-3

http://www.madison.com/wsj/home/local/index.php?ntid=255074&ntpid=2

Picture:

http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astrobiology/biomarkers/_images/biofilm.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/astrobiology/biomarkers/astrobiology.cfm&h=655&w=960&sz=274&hl=en&start=8&sig2=c9QY74HFC1BQy0Lk4jt9cA&tbnid=5iLr9-7TtkRUQM:&tbnh=101&tbnw=148&ei=FKxkR4DwHpG-hALu9qiHDg&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbiofilm%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

Marine Photosynthetic Bacteria…Perhaps a New Green Fuel Source?

2007-11-03T20:40:00.000-07:00

The interest in global warming and environmental degradation goes hand in hand with a search for new greener sources of fuel compared to oil. Well, we may have found one in marine bacteria. It has always been thought that algae were the only marine organism capable of using sunlight for energy, however in 2000, a team of American researchers discovered that a marine microbe contains a gene which codes for a light sensitive pigment. This pigment, named proteorhodopsin, is very similar to rhodopsin, a pigment found in the retina that allows us humans to detect different colours.

At the time of this discovery, scientists were not entirely sure what the pigment was used for, but they had a hunch that it was for photosynthesis. This was only proved last year, when a team of Swedish researchers at Kalmar University College collected some twenty samples of seawater from all over the world and mapped their genomes. Many of these bacteria had the gene present for the production of proteorhodopsin. What is so interesting about this is that they were able to concretely prove experimentally that this pigment converted solar energy into available energy for cellular functions and had successfully found and proven that a marine bacterium actually uses light for energy.

Studies conducted this year at the University of California at Berkley, have further given understanding to this amazing processes of marine bacteria. They found “that when the ability to respire oxygen is impaired, bacteria equipped with proteorhodopsin will switch to solar power to carry out vital life processes.” These researchers discovered that this pigment is facultative, and only kicks in under certain environmental conditions, like low oxygen availability. Many areas of the oceans are quite oxygen deprived, consequently this knowledge gives us some understanding about why so many marine bacteria possess such a pigment.

Enough of this intense science talk, what does this have to do with clean energy??? Well it’s always great to have solar options that have nothing to do with putting ugly panels on your roof! Just think if we could find a way to capture and maximize the energy produced by these bacteria, since for every one litre of seawater there are one billion bacteria. We could kiss our energy crisis goodbye, and at the same time help clean up our hydrocarbon polluted planet. Does it not sound like a win-win situation? So what is the next step? According to Liphardt, a researcher on the team at Berkeley, the next phase “is to optimize the amount of light that can be collected in cells enhanced with proteorhodopsin.” Identifying the most functionally efficient form of this pigment, and incorporating it into the genome of bacteria can achieve this.

Could you imagine if the world’s main energy source was produced by one of the most feared organisms? Wouldn’t that change our perception of bacteria!!!

Resources:

http://lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive?PBD-proteorhodopsin.html

http://www.physorg.com/printnews.php?newsid=87663892

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/06/010614063941.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/070115102154.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070210170433.htm

http://news.softpedia.com/newsPDF/New-Marine-Bacteria-Could-Produce-Ecological-Fuel-44185.pdf

Picture:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/99996011@N00/1483604077/

Long Live Microbes: Revival of Microbes from Ancient Glacial Ice

2007-11-03T16:13:00.000-07:00

A team of scientists from Rutgers University, Korea’s Polar Research Institute, and Boston University has revived microbes from five different samples of ancient ice. The Antarctic samples range in age from 100,000 to 8 million years of age. Antarctica was chosen as a prime site for ice samples because the oldest ice on Earth is located here, in the Transantarctic Mountains. The samples were taken back to the lab and carefully thawed, taking into consideration to maximally avoid contamination by contemporary bacteria in our environment. They did so by soaking the ice samples in an ethanol solution as well as washing the outside of the ice with sterile water. These precautions killed all possible unwanted bacteria.

What do you think they found in the samples of very old ice once it was thawed???? LIVING BACTERIA. How awesome is that???? Both the 100,000 and 8 million year old bacteria could be resurrected from their very cold entombment, however there was a difference between the two. The 100,000-year-old bacteria jumped out of bed like a kid on Christmas morning ready to rip open presents. “The young stuff grew really fast…it doubled every couple of days,” said Kay Bidle, assistant professor of marine biology and coastal sciences at Rutgers; according to their research their was many more microorganisms in the younger ice than in the older ice. The eight million year old ice provided slow growing unidentifiable microbial species. The identification process was impossible because their DNA was so fragmented over years of polar cosmic radiation, that they could no longer repair the damage done. Evidence of exponential decline was also evident from the five ice samples, where “every 1.1 million years, the DNA gets chopped in half,” resulting in very little DNA being left from the 8 million year old sample. Although the old bacteria has very few nucleotide sequences left, and the more recent microbes are rearing to go, they both have genetic material capable of transferring to bacterial species living on Earth today.

Why could this study be such a big deal??? There are two very interesting things this study brings to light, one being the theory that these newly thawed microbes are going to be washed into our oceans at a greater rate than ever, because of global warming and secondly counter acting the theory that bacteria and therefore life landed here via comets from space.

Global warming is a concern on many fronts, however glacial retreat may have a new smaller threat associated with it. The possibility that the ancient bacteria may be able to transfer its DNA remnants to new microbial species in a process called horizontal gene transfer, is a lurking effect on the horizon. As we know from class, this could give microbes the upper hand when it comes to evolution, maybe by transferring advantageous qualities such as antibiotic resistance. Historically, this has been going on throughout the overall time of Earth’s existence, but we have never been able to study or observe its affects on the planet. No one knows what this means or what may happen because of this. Will oceanic microbial species be dramatically changed by the incorporation of new (although ancient) bacterial genes? Will this genes cause new pathogenic disease? Will they be helpful as a source of green energy? No one knows the answers to these questions, however only time will tell if these theories may be true.

Another, quite interesting hypothesis this study may prove wrong, is the theory that bacteria arrived here on Earth from space. Because this study showed that excessive radiation caused the DNA in the bacteria to broken beyond repair, this theory of life on Earth may be up for debate. It may have proven that millions of years of travel through highly radioactive space on an ice-covered comet to land on Earth and be able grow and divide, may not be scientifically possible. Well, I guess we are going to have to look elsewhere for the answer to the question, where did life come from???

These scientific discoveries are what make the world so interesting. Although they may shut doors to theories we’ve thought to answer, they open so many more questions to the future of our planet and everyone who lives here.

References:

Science Daily

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070807084214.htm

BBC News

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6935146.stm

National Geographic News

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070806-bacteria-ice.html

The Independent

http://environment.independent.co.uk/climate_change/article2999306.ece

Astrobiology Magazine

http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=2428

Viral Obesity!

2007-10-27T21:16:00.000-07:00

There has been a growing concern over the population of obese adults and overweight children; this concern has especially grown in the

United States

. The general consensus as to why the belt size of the population has grown is that as the country’s economy improves, the quantity of food presented at the dinner table has increased dramatically, that along with improved technology has caused both children and adults to stay indoors sitting in front of the TV or computer instead of heading outdoors for fresh air and exercise.

The cause for obesity is not a secret. Most of people know obesity occurs because of the consumption of more calories than what is burn in a person’s daily activities! (However, what causes the imbalance between calorie consumption and calorie output differs from person to person, and possible factors can be due to genetics, physiological, environmental factors…etc.) Most of us also understand the health risk one must face if he or she is obese. These risks include: developing heart disease, stroke, diabetes, gout, cancer, gallbladder disease, sleep apnoea, and osteoarthritis.

Scientists have long understood that obesity is not only caused by eating more and exercising less (although it is the main factor in obesity); however, it’s not until recently have they discovered that a virus may be one of the other factors at play causing obesity. According to Dr. Atkinson, director of Obetech Richmond, Va., several studies have offered evidence that animals infected with human virus called Human Ad-36 experienced excess weight gain and fat storage and that the resulting weight gain could be transmitted from infected animals to uninfected animals. He also conducted his studies on humans. Atkinson screened 502 people of varying body weights (both obese and non-obese) for antibodies to Ad-36, and found that the antibodies were found in 30% of obese individuals and 11% of lean individuals. He also did his study on twins and found that within a pair of twins, the one that was screened antibody positive was “significantly heavier than their antibody negative co-twins.”

Moreover, a team at Louisiana’s Pennington Center conducted another experiment using stem cells from fatty tissues taken from liposuction patients and exposed these stem cells to Ad-36 and found that these exposed stem cells had changed into human fat cells after one week; however, the non exposed stem cells were not transformed. Dr. Magdalena Pasarcia, who led this research said: “We're not saying that a virus is the only cause of obesity, but this study provides stronger evidence that some obesity cases may involve viral infections.” Now, researchers are trying to produce a vaccine against Ad-36 (but this will take years to develop).

Although studies have proved that the virus can play a role in obesity, we cannot allow ourselves to live an unhealthy lifestyle. If a person has an unhealthy lifestyle and because of that lifestyle has developed diseases linked to obesity, there really is no point in blaming it on his or her genetic inheritance or viral infection. These studies did show that even with the viral infection, many people can live without being affect by the virus! This new discovery is not going to cure all obese patients overnight (and lower the risks of other disease that follows it.) It’s everyone’s responsibility to keep his or her own mental and physical health at the best shape possible. Eat right, think right and live healthy!

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071023164022.htm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6956543.stm

http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/o/obesity/intro.htm

http://www.weightlossresources.co.uk/body_weight/obesity_health.htm

http://momcentral.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/2007/04/20/child_obesity.jpg

Flesh Eating Bacteria

2007-10-22T18:55:00.000-07:00

Growing up in Shawnigan Lake, just north of Victoria, I lived down the street from an elementary school called Elsie Miles. When I was about six, a little boy who attended Elsie Miles contracted the flesh eating disease Necrotizing Fasciitis and had to have his leg amputated to stop it from spreading to other parts of his body. I was horrified that bacteria could spread so quickly and efficiently that amputation was the only option to save the boy.

According to the BC Health Files, Necrotizing Fasciitis is a rare and serious disease that can destroy skin and underlying tissues. This disease is able to spread through human tissue at a rate of 3 centimetres per hour, and can cause death within 18 hours. Necrotizing Fasciitis is caused by several kinds of bacteria, but most notably Streptococcus pyogenes. 5-15% of normal healthy people harbour S. pyogenes in their respiratory system. S. pyogenes is responsible for strep throat, scarlet fever, skin infections, and rheumatic fever, but causes Necrotizing Fasciitis when it is able to enter the layers of tissue that surround muscle (Fascia).

Streptococcus pyogenes possesses several virulence factors that make it very successful as a pathogen. S. pyogenes is able to colonize and rapidly multiply by using lipoteichoic acids and fibronectin-binding proteins to adhere to host cells. Its lipid membrane and capsule help it to go undetected by host immune systems and avoid macrophages and neutrophils. The lipid membrane contains antigens similar to those found in cardiac, skeletal, smooth muscle, heart valve, and neuronal tissues. This allows the bacteria to blend in and mimic the host cells. The capsule is composed of hyaluronic acid, which is found in human connective tissue. This also helps camouflage the bacteria from the host immune system.

Because of the evasive tactics employed by S. Pyogenes, as well as the rapid colonization and replication, people who have contracted Necrotizing Fasciitis often see a doctor when the disease is already in an advanced state. Antibiotics (penicillin) are effective against S. pyogenes, however if the patient has Necrotizing Fasciitis, blood supply to the infected tissue is cut off and antibiotics are not able to reach the site of infection. Surgery is almost always a necessity and amputation may be necessary in serious cases.

In the case of the little boy, it was lucky that the infection was able to be halted through amputation of the leg. It scares me to think what would have happened had the infection occurred in an area that was not able to be removed.

References:

http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds148e.html
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/streptococcus.html
http://www.bchealthguide.org/healthfiles/hfile60.stm
http://www.bchealthguide.org/kbase/topic/mini/hw140405/overview.htm

Image is courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention image library.

The end for superbugs

2007-10-18T22:07:00.000-07:00

With our improved healthcare system and increased development of antibiotics, it’s not hard to think for a split second that we are safe from infectious bacteria! However, recent outbreaks of “superbugs” have proved otherwise.

There have been outbreaks of MRSA in the hospitals; this superbug has been found to be resistant to 15 to 30 different antibiotics. That means when it's detected, a doctor has only a very small number of compounds at hand that are able to kill it. Another superbug that is causing a stir is a strain of highly drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae which causes acute ear infections in children. As these superbugs are discovered, other bacteria are continually becoming more and more antibiotic resistant.

When people are infected by bacteria, most people will turn to doctor prescribed antibiotics for help; however, antibiotics will manage to kill most of the bacteria cultures, but not all of them! The bacteria that survive the antibiotic treatments most likely would have had some resistance from the start, or that they would have acquired it through mutation or gene exchange with other bacteria. Those cells that survived now face reduced competition from antibiotic susceptible bacteria, and they will go on to proliferate, therefore becoming increasingly resistant to the drugs that we use. So here’s the question: if bacteria adapt and evolve so fast, is there a way to prevent these bugs from mutating into an even more drug resistant bacteria? Floyd E. Romesberg seems to have found the key (at least a start) to preventing bacteria from developing resistance.

To understand his research, first, you will have to know how bacteria mutation occurs. Durring the 1970s scientists discovered the “SOS response” that occurs in bacteria that take advantage of mutation as a form of self defense (chromosomal mutations). “When bacteria are under extreme stress, they try various means of fixing the damage as an initial step. Then they switch genes whose protein products precipitate a spate of mutations that occur 10,000 times as fast as those arising during normal cell replication. In essence, the cells undergo a quick identity change.” (Stix 82) Romesberg used E. coli in his experiment. He found that by using ciprofloxacin (an antibiotic), it triggers the clipping of a protein called LexA in E. coli, resulting in fast development in resistance. When he and the researchers created a strain of E. coli in which LexA could not be cleaved off, the SOS response didn’t materialize. The group of researchers has also gotten similar results for another antibiotic, rifampicin. As a result of his discoveries, Romesberg has been trying to generate a small molecule that could be administered orally along with antibiotics which would switch off the process of LexA cleavage. His work is only focused on fluoroquinolones (bacterialcidal drug that inhibit DNA replication and transcription of the targeted bacteria) because resistance to them only develops through the chromosomal mutations of bacteria. However, this is not enough, as mentioned before, resistance can also be acquired in bacteria though gene exchange from other species or within the same species.

Nevertheless, Romesberg and his teams’ discoveries and researches will provide us a better option to fight off drug resistant bacteria instead of constantly coming up with new antibiotics. It’s all about tackling the source of the problem. But just as a note, people should stop being so depended on drugs. Don’t always go to the doctor for antibiotics and let your own body produce immunity against the foreign invaders because although antibiotics can be a quick fix to the sickness, and can be used to help those with a weakened immune system to save many lives, drugs can also cause complications between the patient and the bacteria. Also keep in mind that the dose of antibiotic intake during a bacterial infection is not always the more the better!

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Primetime/story?id=410908&page=1

http://www.canada.com/topics/bodyandhealth/story.html?id=5a52f9fa-ebb3-46ea-9061-c441e0a47d98&k=14543

This is the site where Romesbergs article can be purchased online, sorry I couldn’t find a PDF copy of the article:

http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=000EA66A-266B-1417-A66B83414B7F0000

However, here’s the magazine reference:

Stix, Gary. “An Antibiotic Resistance Fighter.” Scientific American April 2006: 81-83

Image: http://www.davidicke.com/oi/extras/october/superbug.jpg

MRSA, When Should Disclosure Be Required?!

2007-10-17T22:31:00.000-07:00

Should hospital staff that test positive as carriers for MRSA be allowed to continue to work with seriously ill patients? I say NO! Why? Given all the guidelines for prevention, there are still outbreaks in the hospitals.

A hospital staff member that is a carrier of MRSA just needs to sneeze into their hand and turn a door knob to get the spreading started. Prevention, it is easy, but, it will take a few minutes of your time.

http://www.cdc.gov/od/oc/media/pressrel/fs021025.htm, click at this site for correct hand washing guidelines.

The BC Health Files states "...you do not need treatment and you should continue with your normal activities" and "You do not need to disclose to your workplace, school or daycare setting the fact that you carry MRSA. " What! If I had children, I would not place them in a daycare where any individual is a carrier of MRSA.

The BC Health Files states for hospital visits, "Important: If you may be a carrier of MRSA and are going to be admitted into hospital, it is very important for you to let hospital admitting staff know. Steps will be taken to protect other patients and hospital staff from MRSA infection." This should be the case in all institutions. At the hospital you need to protect those that are seriously ill-Yes.

What about in the community with the weak elderly, young children, or immunocompramised individuals. Do they not have the right to be protected like the Hospital Staff?

It IS important to let your employer, school, daycare...etc know if you are a carrier of MRSA.

Image. http://www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/mfl/lowres/mfln242l.jpg
BC HealthFile #73, September 2005. http://www.bchealthguide.org/healthfiles/hfile73.stm#hf0735

Robert Koch's ironic discovery

2007-10-16T00:19:00.000-07:00

Robert Koch's Original photos!

The reason I say IRONIC is because we all know about Robert Koch (or should) and his discovery of Koch's Postulates, but what we don’t know is that he was using some of the most virulent bacteria that live still today. You may remember Anthrax from the "Amerithrax" phase in September 2001, following the terrorist attack on the twin towers. Robert Koch was the first to isolate this capsule-forming and spore-forming gram-positive bacteria named Bacillus anthracis. If you remember the formation of Koch's postulates, you will recognize the process by witch he discovered the relationship between a causative bacteria and a disease. The first causative bacteria to prove this association therefore, was Bacillus anthracis! Also interesting is that Robert Koch discovered Bacillus anthracis's ability to form endospores in 1877, however, the severe toxic properties of the bacteria were not recognized until 1954. Do you think Koch knew the phenomenon of the bacteria he selected at the time? The part that I find fascinating is that they believed that, because of the potency of anthrax bacilli observed in the deceased animals, the cause of death was actually the effect of a suggested "log-jam" theory (referring to a block in the capillaries). The fascinating part is not the theory (although intriguing), the fascinating part is that Koch survived, because the dead body of a bacillus anthracis infected mammal is considered a very dangerous source of anthrax spores. At this point, Lister’s idea of Phenol was evident, however, we know that this period of experimentation had not allowed for the safety procedures of today’s standards to mature in light of sanitation. It seems amazing that Koch, or anyone working with him, did not develop any obvious symptoms of the deadly disease cause by the bacteria. This is why:

The "log-jam" theory failed upon proof that cells extracted from animals dying of anthrax infection were toxin-filled and that was the real cause of symptoms and death due to the anthrax disease. Upon observation of this consistently appearing toxin, it was confirmed that a diffusible exotoxin made the bacillus anthracis highly pathogenic! But that’s not it!!!! ..... Bacillus Anthracis also has the ability to form a clycocalyx made of poly-D-glutamate polypeptide. The capsule is a strong survival mechanism, protecting its self from phagocytosis as well as aiding in the initial stages of infection. The bacteria form a spore as well, making it resistant to heat (of up to 80 degrees), cold, and desiccation. The spore has been known to survive for decades, sprouting consequential growth at an opportune change of environment any ware across the globe. Bacillus anthracis is contacted in humans in three ways: Ingestion, by skin contact, or by inhalation. Skin contact infection gives rise to the Greek origin on the name “anthrax”, meaning coal, due to the distinctive black lesion an infection produces. Inhalation is the most fatal, often causing death if not treated promptly. Seeing as the most common way to contract the disease is by direct contact with infected animals or their carcasses, Koch must have been either very careful in his experiments or very lucky. In fact, Koch lived to be 66 years old, and died from a heart attack that seems to be unrelated to his study of disease.

Another notable fact that made Bacillus anthracis's "claim to fame" for previously oblivious microbiology students and people alike, was the anthrax panic in the United States in 2001. The strain of bacteria used in the letters was originally a warfare weapon for World War II (sick hey?) but is now being controlled within an estimated 15 labs throughout the United States. Two forms of anthrax were synthesized from the same bacterial Ames strain. The anthrax letters, addressed to different media stations in New York as well as to the senator, were contaminated with the cutaneous anthrax (the skin contact infection) and the more serious inhalation form of anthrax. Five people died of anthrax infections, 11 were in critical condition, and 22 people showed sever symptoms, but were treated efficiently.

Overall, I thought this was a pretty interesting bacteria. Let me know what you all think!
Sorry about my horrid spelling- I spell checked but I know Im not the best speller.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/Anthrax.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis
http://michigan.gov/documents/Healthcare_provider_FAQ-anthrax_08-2004_104327_7.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_disease

Have you ever heard of natto?

2007-10-13T16:50:00.000-07:00

Although there are some pathogenic one, some bacteria help our everyday life as we can see from this blog. We learned that bacteria is really important for the carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycle in our life. For instance, without bacterias' help, we cannot use nitrogen since the nitrogen as a waste is too stable for us to use. And as everyone knows, bacteria are also used for various kinds of food which usually promote more health benefits for us.

Natto (fermented soy beans) is the Japanese traditional food which we Japanese people especially eat for a breakfast. There are differences about the origin of natto among some sources, but people started to eat long time ago. Originally, people stored soybeans in straws for preservation since Japanese people grew rice as a staple diet, and they got natto from them. How did the soybeans become natto? That is the job bacillus natto do! Bacillus natto live in straws, and they ferment soybeans, which leads to more healthy soybean food. By fermenting soybeans, it is also said that proteins are more easy to assimilate to our body compare to the non-fermented soybeans. Moreover, the well-known job bacillus natto does is the production of the enzyme called nattokinase. Natto contains a lot of nattokinase which lyses clotting in blood stream, and we can prevent incidence of thrombosis such as myocardial and cerebral infarction.

Natto is rich in source of vitamin K since it is made from soybeans. Vitamin K is pro-coagulants which is converted from vitamin K in a liver as a clotting factors. Therefore you have to pay attention since vitamin K is associated with some blood clotting activity, and especially people taking certain medicine (such as warfrin) have to attention the excess intake of natto. So don't take natto too much although it is highly nutritional. I believe moderate intake works best no matter how nutritious the food is.

It is hard to get natto here, but you can get it at some Japanese grocery stores. As a microbiology student, why don't you try one:)?

References:

http://faculty.washington.edu/kepeter/118/notes/pdf-set3/118clotting-fall07.pdf

http://www.jafra.gr.jp/eng/interview-sumi.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natt%C5%8D (also image)

They are talking about us!!!

2007-10-08T20:27:00.000-07:00

The Bayblab dudes are a very nice bunch. Interesting guys and interested in science and everything in between....and they are talking about us!!! Visit them here: http://bayblab.blogspot.com/2007/10/teaching-science-with-web-20.html

"Cleaning-Up": Pollution eating bacteria give new hope to future.

2007-10-02T19:38:00.000-07:00

Bacteria are given a bad reputation for causing disease, infections, etc... Although this isn't entirely untrue, without bacteria many of the processes/cycles that occur in nature, and with in our bodies, would not take place without the aid of bacteria. Not only this, bacteria proves its efficiency by being able to "clean-up" our polluted planet. Although this is not an entirely new concept, it is now being researched and taken advantage more as our planet is becoming overwhelmingly polluted. There are many different bacteria that have the ability to break down toxic chemicals/pollutants, inflicted on the environment by its most ignorant inhabitants. Humans of course! Bacteria can be used to clean-up contamination of groundwater, soil, and ozone due to: the disposal/use of industrial solvents, gasoline, and other toxic chemicals, as well as oil spills and mining.

TCA1, Dehalococcoides Ethenogenes, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus...These are just a few of the bacteria used individually, or in a consortium (mix of bacteria), to help rid the environment of some of the deadly toxins, and/or help degrade these toxins to less toxic compounds.

TCA1 breaks down trichloroethane (TCA) to a less toxic substance. TCA is a widely used industrial solvent found in products like degreaser and cleaner for metals, drycleaner and spot remover,propellant in aerosol cans, etc...It contaminates soil, ground water, and when airborne can erode the ozone layer.

Dehalococcoides Ethenogenes detoxifies carcinogenic chemicals such as perchloroethylene (PCE), and trichloroethylene (TCE), to a less toxic compound by dechloronation. PCE and TCE are found in industrial cleaners, and due to their disposal methods, are one of the worst organic groundwater pollutants.

Pseudomonas can work individually or in a consortium with Rhodococcus. Individually pseudomonoas degrade pre-dissolved benzene, toluene, and p-xylene (BTX). BTX is used for industrial purposes as well as for components in gasoline. In a consortium (mix of both along with other bacteria), the two bacteria help to degrade oil pollution due to oil spills. As much as 29 million gallons of petroleum enter the North American ocean waters each year alone; 85% of this is from land-based run-off, polluted rivers, airplanes, small boats and jet skis...all from human activities, while only 8% is actually from oil spills. Approximately another 47 million gallons comes naturally from the sea floor. The effects of oil pollution range from damage to marine life and the ocean environment, all the way to crippling a society based on profiting off of the ocean (tourism, fishing, etc...).

Along side oil pollution, pollution from mining also poses a serious threat to the environment (mainly by contamintating water from run-off); the most hazardous type in BC being Acid Mining. Acid mine drainage produces sulphuric acid, which leads to acid rain as well as acidic water unable to support life. Mining of all types can also lead to heavy metal contamination of water due to leaching (leaching is accelerated in the presence of acidity), contamination by chemicals (cyanide and sulphuric acid) used to separate minerals from ore, and contamination from sediment due to erosion of exposed earth. The problem may be partially solved. Newly discovered extremophile, "mineral-loving", bacteria can be used not only to help mine the metals, but also to clean up corrosive acid pollution byproducts of mining.

These are just a few examples of how bacteria can benefit our environment when it comes to ridding the planet of pollution. Although there are clear advantages to using bacteria in the case of pollution, whether it be pollution from the present or past, should we really continue to pollute the way we do and rely on other microorganisms to clean up after us? Or should we get to the root of the problem by trying to find more efficient, "environmentally friendly" ways to go about living? That way we can all enjoy a happier, healthier planet...and not just for the present, perhaps for the future too!

References:

http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/18436/story.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/02/990205085440.htm

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070620103258.htm

http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2000-05/958849072.Mi.r.html

http://www.ebi.ac.uk/2can/genomes/bacteria/Dehalococcoides_ethenogenes.html

http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=10388

http://www.newswales.co.uk/?section=Environment&F=1&id=7707

http://www.miningwatch.ca/updir/amd.pdf

Picture is taken by me.

Microbes on Mars (lets hope they aren’t too virulent)

2007-09-28T00:07:00.000-07:00

Martians are generally imagined as three fingered, green, bald headed creatures; however, recent theory suggests that the Martians may be or have been microorganisms.

It is believed that Mars may have once had water on its surface. As we all know, on Earth, water means life. Channels and craters on Mars differ from those on the Moon or Mercury, which make scientists believe that water may be present on Mars. As it turns out, Mars has massive polar ice caps (complete with a permafrost layer) which, if melted, would produce enough water to cover the entire planet “eleven meters” deep.

Water, as a liquid however, cannot exist except at very low elevations because of the weak atmosphere. Still, it is thought because of the unusual craters and striations across the planet that beneath the ice lays even more water. In 2002, the Mars Odyssey spacecraft used its gamma ray spectrometer and confirmed that there is “enormous quantities of water ice beneath the surface of Mars.”

It is further argued that there must have been -or still is- water on Mars due to its “debris pattern and colouring” though this is possibly due to carbon dioxide frost or dust movement. However, many believe that the presence of hematite and goethite (“usually formed in a wet environment”) found on Mar’s surface is indicative of water’s presence and lends hope to there having been life on Mars. To further that hope, in December of 2006, scientists believed that the geological changes shown in photographs at the time suggest that water occasionally flows over parts of the surface.

In addition to water possibly being on its surface, Mars boasts a small atmosphere with methane gas pockets throughout. Due to the methane pockets and polar ice caps, the most recent theory is that if microbes existed on Mars they would be much like our terrestrial methanogens. Methanogens can live deep in ice (such as in Antarctica or Greenland). If this is true, Mars may already be supporting life. If not, microbes are known for their adaptability and tenacity; it is possible that they are dormant.

Many of the experiments done on Mars (1970’s) to see if microbial life existed there were done with saline as the main “internal fluid” in mind. It is now thought that these series of tests would have only drowned or burned the possible life forms. With the cold and dry (water is not really observable) climate it is thought that, should the microorganisms exist, they would be made up of water and hydrogen peroxide as it freezes at a much lower temperature.

Among the previous theories lies another: the possibility that microbes on Mars have magnetisomes. A meteorite, named ALH84001, is believed to contain the fossilized remains of microbes from Mars.

However, until it is proven without a doubt that Mars has water, it is impossible to tell whether alien microbes have lived on our neighbouring planet.

References:
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2004/88.cfm

http://airandspace.si.edu/etp/Mars/surface/water.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/24/13490?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=%28Mars+AND+magnetite%29&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/5/2164?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=%28Mars+AND+magnetite%29&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT

http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/WireStory?id=2776816&page=1

Deadly space bugs

2007-09-25T11:41:00.000-07:00

It is known that microgravity (MG) affects the way cells react. For example, astronauts coming back to Earth after a long time spent under very low gravity show signs of bone resorption and muscle mass loss. Bacteria react to low gravity too. In a paper published in 2002, Dr. Cheryl Nickerson and her team (see reference and link to pdf file below) discovered that the expression of many genes is in fact affected by MG (Figure on right). As can be seen, some genes are expressedm or not under normal gravity (1xg) but this expression pattern can be almost completely reversed under MG (or LSMMG - Low Shear Modeled Micro Gravity).

Because gene expression seems to be influenced by microgravity, the obvious experiment was now to determine if the virulence of bacteria is increased un der MG...in other words are microbes susceptible to become "superbugs" in space? The answer, sadly, seems to be YES!

In another study, to be published in PNAS, Dickerson and fisrt author James Wilson show that some virulence genes are in fact turned on by microgravity. In a mere 12 days in september, during spaceflight STS-115, Salmonella tiphymurium became more virulent. According to the authors, the shape of bacteria did not change but they seem to form a biofilm which is more difficult to eliminate by the immune system. In fact, when these "spacebugs" were fed to mice, they show a 3-times increase in virulence.

Space is definitively a weird place to be...even for bacteria! Astronauts beware...bring your Purell!

For audio of this story follow this link

References:

James W. Wilson, Rajee Ramamurthy, Steffen Porwollik, Michael McClelland, Timothy Hammond, Pat Allen, C. Mark Ott, Duane L. Pierson, and Cheryl A. Nickerson. Microarray analysis identifies Salmonella genes belonging to the low-shear modeled microgravity regulon
PNAS 2002 99: 13807-13812

Wilson et al. Space flight alters bacterial gene expression and virulence and reveals a role for global regulator Hfq.
PNAS doi/10/1073/pnas.0707155104.

NOTE: This blog post is also published on my other blog

Ahhh.....MICROBES!!!!

2007-08-24T16:26:00.000-07:00

Microbes....yes! Our love-hate relationship with microbes is a long, long story! They can make you sick...extremely ill. Paradoxically, they also protect us from other microbes. They are a source of enjoyment (think drinks, food and recycling).

This blog has been created for you, students of BIO 202. I hope you read it, but mostly I look forwards to read your postings...you will HAVE TO blog...marks will be allowed for this! I look forwards to work with you!

BIOL 202 - Microbiology

The Paranoia of North America

AIDS: A Man Made Drug?

Microbial War

Excenel - not all its cracked up to be?

Hendra is such a pretty name.

The Forgotten Fungus

Washing hands proven to be more effective than drug against pandemic

New Possible Vaccine Against Avian Flu?

The New Influenza Vaccine

Want Milk?

Energy Drinks

They’ve Got It All Wrong. Life (though small) Imitates Art.

In the Fight Against Global Warming, Can We Get Microbes On Our Team?

HPV also Affect Males

How often do you clean your bath towel?

Got an Infection? Here’s a Sweet Solution

Heating Things Up

Microbes and Oil

Influenza

The Ethanol Machine

With A Little Help From Our Friends

Not So Sweet

Cancer-resistant Mouse is Created

Say Hello To My Little Friends!

What to do about the tide?

RSV: A Common Danger to Infants and Children

THE AFFECT OF RED TIDE ON OUR PALATES

Links

Poisonous Toilet

Cancer-Killing Vaccinia Virus

Tetanus Antitoxin

Gene Therapy -- A Possible Cure for Blindness

H5N1: Avian Bird Flu, are we prepared for a pandemic?

Is there an MRSA epidemic on our hands?

TB’s Fighting Back!!

Appendix Isn’t Totally Useless

Plaque: a biofilm formation

When Phages Attack: The War Against the Bacteria

Microogranisms Saving the World

How Far Down Does The Rabbit Hole Go?

Bovine Batteries,Cows as a source of electriciy?

New Laser Technology

Ear Infections, what you should know...

HPV and cervical cancer.

Global Warming and Bacteria

Ear Infections caused by Superbug: "It all starts with the Ear"

Viruses and Osteosarcoma

Twinrix Vaccine

Bye bye biofilm...maybe?

Marine Photosynthetic Bacteria…Perhaps a New Green Fuel Source?

Long Live Microbes: Revival of Microbes from Ancient Glacial Ice

Viral Obesity!

Flesh Eating Bacteria

The end for superbugs

MRSA, When Should Disclosure Be Required?!

Robert Koch's ironic discovery

Have you ever heard of natto?

They are talking about us!!!

"Cleaning-Up": Pollution eating bacteria give new hope to future.

Microbes on Mars (lets hope they aren’t too virulent)

Deadly space bugs

Ahhh.....MICROBES!!!!